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Eating foods with flavonoids can help prevent cognitive declineFlavonoids and stress management -
Heat stress damages leaf tips, which adversely affects plant development and yield; it was previously reported that heat stress reduces leaf area, causes leaf tip burn and yellowing of the entire leaf, and finally leads to death Sarsu, Beside leaf tip burn, we also noted some necrotic symptoms on the middle area of the leaves of Wt-t and OxF3H-t plants, which were more severe in Wt-t plants Supplementary Figure S1.
Taken together, these results suggest that overexpression of F3H mitigates salt and heat stress and can enhance growth and development under stress conditions.
Figure 1. Evaluation of growth parameters of Wt-cont, Wt-t, and OxF3H-t plants. A Shoot length, B root length, C leaf width, and D leaf tip damage following stress exposure. Lower panels show photographic representations of each phenotype.
These results demonstrate that overexpression of F3H could differentially regulate salt- and heat-related genes. Figure 2. Overexpression of F3H significantly regulates salt- and heat-related genes during combined salt and heat stress. A—F Relative expression of F3H , HKT , NHX , SOS , HSF , and HSP , respectively, in Wt-control, Wt-t, and OxF3H-t plants.
The fold change of each gene was measured after 0-, 3-, 6-, , and h intervals of continuous stress exposure, with actin used as a reference gene. ROS are generated as because of common stresses such as wounds, pathogens, drought, salinity, and heat.
Beside promoting programmed cell death, high levels of ROS produce harmful effects due to lipid peroxidation, protein denaturation, and DNA damage Miller and Mittler, To evaluate H 2 O 2 generation and cell death, we performed DAB and Trypan blue staining DAB interacts with H 2 O 2 and generates a reddish-brown polymer, whereas Trypan blue staining shows dead cells; Hoang et al.
Cell death and H 2 O 2 accumulation in roots were determined after 1 week of exposure to stress conditions Figure 3. Similarly, root tips and the middle parts of the root also accumulated more blue stains compared with that in OxF3H-t plants Figure 3B ; thus, combined salt and heat stress seems to cause substantial levels of cell death in Wt-t plants relative to that in OxF3H-t plants, which may further affect physiological processes.
We also noted that the root tip of Wt-t plants, which showed the highest accumulation of blue staining, was more sensitive to the stress condition than that of the OxF3H-t plants.
These results suggest that F3H expression is associated with cell death and H 2 O 2 generation. Figure 3. Combined salt and heat stress causes severe oxidative stress in leaves and roots.
A,B Cell death in leaves and roots, respectively, according to Trypan blue staining. C H 2 O 2 generation in the leaves of Wt-cont, Wt-t, and OxF3H-t plants as detected using DAB staining. Salt and heat stress regulate osmotic imbalance, which can be adjusted by regulation of flavonoids and antioxidant machinery that ameliorate stress conditions by scavenging free radicals Kumar et al.
Peroxidation of membrane lipids is a biomarker that characterizes the level of oxidative damage in plants under stress conditions; it is usually measured as an increase in MDA content. We measured MDA in response to combined salt and heat stress was significantly increased in Wt-t plants compared with the levels in Wt-cont plants Figure 4B.
Thus, high levels of membrane lipid peroxidation apparently occurred in Wt-t plants, which led to oxidative damage in these plants. The accumulation patterns of GPx and MDA were antagonistically associated, i.
Figure 4. Quantification of antioxidants and flavonoids in wild-type and transgenic plants in response to combined salt and heat stress. ABA levels increased significantly in response to stress exposure in both Wt-t and OxF3H-t plants compared with those in Wt-cont plants Figure 5A ; however, ABA levels were consistently reduced as stress duration increased.
Accumulation of SA was lower in OxF3H-t plants relative to that in Wt-t plants, but SA levels increased as stress duration increased. Comparing the levels of SA and ABA in OxF3H-t plants, the hormones were regulated differentially under stress conditions.
Thus, in the F3H transgenic line, SA accumulation increased and ABA accumulation decreased in response to combined salt and heat stress. Figure 5. Abscisic acid ABA and salicylic acid SA are differentially regulated in wild-type and transgenic plants during combined salt and heat stress.
Contrastingly, OxF3H-t plants showed the highest level of chlorophyll content of the three plant groups Figure 6C , indicating that F3H can positively regulate photosynthesis during salt and heat stress. Figure 6. The purpose of this work was to assess the activity of F3H in response to the combined stress of salt and heat, two of the most prominent and damaging abiotic stressors that coexist in arid and semiarid locations across the world.
Individually, salt and heat stressors have been extensively investigated, with significant advances made in understanding their related physiological and molecular processes. After validating stress tolerance in the laboratory, researchers can release a substantial number of transgenic crops into agricultural fields.
Here, we explored the likely function of flavonoid accumulation in response to combined salt and heat stress, as well as the physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants. The shoot length, root length, leaf width, and leaf tip tolerance levels were all higher in OxF3H-t plants than in Wt-t plants Figure 1.
According to many experts, stress-related inhibition of cell elongation and cell division, irregular ion homeostasis, and osmotic and oxidative stress generated by salt stress could all contribute to decreased plant growth and biomass accumulation Rahman et al. In addition to phenotypic variation in wild-type and transgenic lines under stress, we found that OxF3H-t and Wt-t plants had higher and lower photosynthesis levels, respectively, than those in control plants Figure 6C.
According to previous studies, salt stress disrupts photosynthetic pigments in solanum lycopersicu m plants, which is associated with oxidative damage Rahman et al. Our study indicates that when salt and heat stress are combined, Wt-t plants experience more oxidative stress and ROS accumulation than those observed in OxF3H-t plants, which results in greater chlorophyll degradation in Wt-t plants than in OxF3H-t plants.
According to previous observations, oxidative stress stimulates the production of ROS, which enhance chlorophyllase activity, which in turn is responsible for the degradation of photosynthetic pigments Ahmad et al.
Under combined salt and heat combined stress, OxF3H-t plants produced more kaempferol and quercetin than were produced by Wt-t plants Figures 4C , D , suggesting that these compounds may be involved in protecting photosynthetic pigments from degradation.
Our findings are consistent with those of Parvin et al. We postulate that increased accumulation of kaempferol and quercetin Figures 4C , D detoxifies the damaging H 2 O 2 molecules produced under combined salt and heat stress due to the antioxidant nature of these compounds.
Beside phenotypic variations, F3H overexpression causes transcriptional differences in salt- and heat-related genes in response to combined salt and heat stress. F3H is a key gene in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway, which is upregulated during abiotic stress.
In a previous study, we discovered that F3H gene expression boosts kaempferol and quercetin accumulation in rice Jan et al.
These findings suggest that flavonoids and genes involved in their biosynthesis may be implicated in the response to abiotic stressors such as UV radiation, dehydration, heat, and salinity. Under combined salt and heat stress, we measured the expression levels of HKT , NHX , SOS , HSF , and HSP in both wild-type and transgenic plants Figure 2.
Compared with control plants, HKT , SOS , HSF , and HSP were significantly upregulated in OxF3H-t plants, whereas NHX was downregulated. Although these genes were expressed at higher levels in Wt-t plants than in control plants, the differences were not statistically significant.
Individually, salt stress affects the expression of HKT , NHX , and SOS , but there is little information on how salt and heat stress interact to affect these genes Zhang et al. Because HKT and SOS expression was significantly higher in F3H transgenic plants compared to wild-type and control plants, our findings indicate that F3H enhances HKT and SOS expression during heat and salt stress.
However, based on our findings, we expected that the combination of salt and heat stress suppresses NHX expression in OxF3H-t plants compared its expression in control plants.
Similarly, in several previous studies, it has been reported that HSF and HSP play prominent roles in individual salt and heat stresses Nover et al. A previous study showed that heat and salt stress increased accumulation of kaempferol and quercetin via regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes Xu et al.
These findings lead us to conclude that F3H, HKT, NHX, SOS, HSF, HSP, kaempferol, and quercetin all work synergistically to increase the tolerance of plants to combined salt and heat stress.
High temperatures and salinity cause oxidative stress, which is mediated by ROS and results in the regulation of stress hormones including ABA, SA, JA, and ethylene. These stress hormones are important for stress mediation and the establishment of a stress—growth balance Yu et al.
When comparing OxF3H-t to Wt-t and control plants, we found that ABA accumulation was higher, while SA accumulation was lower Figure 5.
Thus, ABA and SA apparently exhibit antagonistic cross talk in response to combined salt and heat stress because SA levels continuously increased, whereas ABA levels decreased as the stress period lengthened.
Furthermore, de Torres Zabala et al. Our findings demonstrate that although ABA levels are higher in OxF3H-t plants, ROS accumulation is lower in these plants relative to the levels detected in Wt-t plants Figure 3.
This implies that OxF3H-t plants accumulate more ABA, which in turn lowers oxidative damage during combined salt and heat stress. Furthermore, we discovered that the transgenic line exhibited increased levels of kaempferol, quercetin, and ABA, which suggests that a link exists between flavonoid and hormone signaling in response to combined salt and heat stress.
Our findings are consistent with prior research showing that flavonoids were enhanced in ABA-, SA-, and JA-treated plants Thiruvengadam et al. Moreover, based on the research of Hung and Kao , we may postulate that ABA and SA regulate the primary enzyme in the flavonoid production pathway, which results in increased levels of kaempferol and quercetin.
Overall, our study demonstrates that wild-type and OsF3H transgenic rice plants respond differently to combined salt and heat stress in terms of their physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses.
During salt and heat stress, induced expression of F3H increases plant biomass and photosynthesis. Both salt and heat stress increase oxidative stress, which is mitigated by the high accumulation of kaempferol and quercetin, given that constant expression of F3H significantly enhances both of these flavonoid molecules, which are known to scavenge ROS.
Because of the antagonistic cross talk between ABA and SA in one transgenic line, we suggest that F3H is involved in the regulation of hormonal machinery in response to combined salt and heat stress.
Overall, the overexpression of F3H seems to regulate the physiological, biochemical, and molecular machinery of rice plants during stress exposure involving salinity and heat.
RJ, S-HL, and K-MK designed the study. RJ, S-HL, and NK performed the experiments. MK, SAa, and S-HL performed the analyses. I-JL provided resources. RJ and S-HL wrote the manuscript. SAi produced the figures and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government NRFM3E5E The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
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Spectrochim Acta Part a Mol Biomol Spectr — Trend Plant Sci — Download references. Department of Botany, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India.
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Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Abstract Globally escalating food demand and unpredictable global warming have threatened the humanity in jeopardy. Keywords Carotenoids Flavonoids Metabolites Stress Tolerance.
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Thank you for visiting anr. You are using Vitamin and mineral essentials browser version with limited anr for CSS. To Manageement the best Flavonoids and stress management, we recommend you use a managemeht up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Drought stress triggers a series of physiological and biochemical changes in tea plants. It is well known that flavonoids, lignin and long-chain fatty acids play important roles in drought resistance.
Flavonoids and stress management stresses, such as salt and heat stress, coexist in some regions stresss the world and can have Flavvonoids significant impact Flavonoids and stress management strses plant biomass and production. Rice is a valuable crop that Flavonoids and stress management Flavonooids to salt anv high temperatures. Here, we studied Lentils in international cuisine role of flavanol 3-hydroxylase in response Traditional healing modalities combined salt and heat stress with the aim of better understanding the defensive mechanism of rice. We found that, compared with wild-type plants, the growth and development of transgenic plants were improved due to higher biosynthesis of kaempferol and quercetin. Furthermore, we observed that oxidative stress was decreased in transgenic plants compared with that in wild-type plants due to the reactive oxygen species scavenging activity of kaempferol and quercetin as well as the modulation of glutathione peroxidase and lipid peroxidase activity. In addition, transgenic plants showed higher levels of abscisic acid ABA and lower levels of salicylic acid SA than were found in control plants.
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