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Exp Neurobiol 19 1 — Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Elkady WM, Bishr MM, Abdel-Aziz MM, Salama OM Identification and isolation of anti-pneumonia bioactive compounds from Opuntia ficus-indica fruit waste peels.
Food Funct — Siddiqui F, Naqvi S, Abidi L, Faizi S, Avesi L, Mirza T, Dar Farooq A Opuntia dillenii cladode: Opuntiol and opuntioside attenuated cytokines and eicosanoids mediated inflammation. J Ethnopharmacol — Loro J, Del Rio I, Perez-Santana L Preliminary studies of analgesic and antiinflammatory properties of Opuntia dillenii aqueous extract.
J Ethnophalrmacol — Rodriguez J, Yanez J, Vicente V, Alcaraz M, Benavente-Garcia O, Castillo J, Lorente J, Lozano J Effects of several flavonoids on the growth of B16F10 and SK-MEL-1 melanoma cell lines: relationship between structure and activity.
Melanoma Res — Sreekanth D, Arunasree M, Roy KR, Reddy TC, Reddy GV, Reddanna P Betanin, a betacyanin pigment purified from fruits of Opuntia Ficus-indica induces apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line-K Phytomedicine — Ramirez-Rodriguez Y, Martinez-Huelamo M, Pedraza-Chaverri J, Ramirez V, Martinez-Taguena N, Trujillo J Ethnobotanical, nutritional and medicinal properties of Mexican drylands Cactaceae fruits: recent findings and research opportunities.
Gouws CA, Georgousopoulou EN, Mellor DD, McKune A, Naumovski N Effects of the consumption of prickly pear cacti Opuntia spp. and its products on blood glucose levels and insulin: a systematic review. Medicina Kaunas 55 5 Uebelhack R, Busch R, Alt F, Beah ZM, Chong PW Effects of cactus fiber on the excretion of dietary fat in healthy subjects: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover clinical investigation.
Curr Ther Res Clin Exp — Grube B, Chong PW, Lau KZ, Orzechowski HD A natural fiber complex reduces body weight in the overweight and obese: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Obesity 21 1 — Lopez-Velez M, Martinez-Martinez F, Valle-Ribes CD The study of phenolic compounds as natural antioxidants in wine.
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 43 3 — Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 58 3 — CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Jones JM Dietary fiber future directions: integrating new definitions and findings to inform nutrition research and communication.
Adv Nutr 4 1 :8— Thompson SV, Hannon BA, An R, Holscher HD Effects of isolated soluble fiber supplementation on body weight, glycemia, and insulinemia in adults with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Am J Clin Nutr 6 — Ventura-Aguilar RI, Bosquez-Molina E, Bautista-Banos S, Rivera-Cabrera F Cactus stem Opuntia ficus-indica Mill : anatomy, physiology and chemical composition with emphasis on its biofunctional properties. J Sci Food Agric 97 15 — Kuti J Growth and compositional changes during the development of prickly pear fruit.
J Hortic Sci — Meda A, Lamien CE, Romito M, Millogo J, Nacoulma OG Determination of the total phenolic, flavonoid and proline contents in Burkina Fasan honey, as well as their radical scavenging activity.
Zou D-M, Brewer M, Garcia F, Feugang JM, Wang J, Zang R, Liu H, Zou C Cactus pear: a natural product in cancer chemoprevention. Nutr J Collazo-Siques P, Valverde M, Paredes-López O, Guevara-Lara F Expression of ripening-related genes in prickly pear Opuntia sp.
Moosazadeh E, Akhgar MR, Kariminik A Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Opuntia stricta F. essential oil. J Biodivers Environ Sci 4 5 — Chiteva R, Wairagu N Chemical and nutritional content of Opuntia ficus-indica L.
Afr J Biotechnol 12 21 — Santos-Díaz MS, de la Rosa APB, Héliès-Toussaint C, Guéraud F, Nègre-Salvayre A Opuntia spp. Oxid Med Cell Longev — Kumar D, Kumar-Sharma P A review on Opuntia species and its chemistry, pharmacognosy, pharmacology, and bioapplications.
Curr Nutr Food Sci In: Watson RR, Preedy VR eds Bioactive food as dietary interventions for diabetes bioactive foods as dietary interventions for diabetes. Elsevier, pp — Aparicio-Fernández X, Loza-Cornejo S, Torres Bernal MG, Velázquez Placencia NJ, Arreola-Nava HJ Physicochemical characteristics of fruits from wild Opuntia species from two semiarid regions of Jalisco.
Mexico Polibotánica Vigueras GAL, Portillo L Uses of Opuntia species and the potential impact of Cactoblastis cactorum Lepidoptera: Pyralidae in Mexico. Fla Entomol 84 4 — Azizi-Gannouni T, Ammari Y, Boudhina S, Albouchi A Assessment and identification of cactus Opuntia spp.
ecotypes grown in a semi-arid Mediterranean region. Pak J Biol Sci 23 3 — Mayer JA, Cushman JC Nutritional and mineral content of prickly pear cactus: a highly water-use efficient forage, fodder and food species.
J Agron Crop Sci 6 — de Farias PM, Matheus JRV, Fai AEC et al Global research trends on the utilization of nopal Opuntia Sp. cladodes as a functional ingredient for industrial use.
Plant Foods Hum Nutr. Zourgui MN, Ben Lataief S, Ben Dhifi M, Agil A, Zourgui L Bioactive phytochemicals from cactus Opuntia seed oil processing by-products.
In: Ramadan Hassanien MF ed Bioactive phytochemicals from vegetable oil and oilseed processing by-products. Reference series in phytochemistry. Download references. The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by AIA, MYA, JSH, and JRK. The first draft of the manuscript was written by AIA, MYA, JSH, JRK and MFR and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript.
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Reprints and permissions. Alshaikhi, A. et al. Nutritional aspects, bioactive phytochemicals and biomedical traits of Opuntia spp. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Download citation. Received : 28 September Accepted : 31 October Published : 22 November Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Download PDF. Abstract This review was conducted to fully comprehend the nutritional value of the Opuntia spp. Physalis peruviana Linnaeus, an Update on its Functional Properties and Beneficial Effects in Human Health Chapter © Chemical composition, nutritional and health related properties of the medlar Mespilus germanica L.
Nutritional and therapeutic potentials of rambutan fruit Nephelium lappaceum L. and the by-products: a review Article 19 March Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Full size image. Table 1 Amino acid levels in Opuntia ficus-indica Full size table.
Table 2 Vitamins levels in O. ficus-indice Full size table. and their biological effects A "bio-active compound" is a naturally occurring chemical that could interact with one or more constituents of living tissues to affect human health [ 32 ]. Table 4 Health benefits of Opuntia ficus-indica Full size table.
Table 5 Health benefit of Opuntia ficus-indica bioactive compounds Full size table. ficus-indica 6. Data availability All data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
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Dietary tannins do not always affect the nutritional status of the ruminant animal. There are many possible reasons for this. If the forage or feed resource is too low in tannin concentration, little, if any nutritional impact will be observed.
The tannin's chemical structure produced by a given plant can determine whether or not the phytochemical is effective at eliciting a desired animal response. Modes of action of tannins also differ for different activities such that the type and structure of tannin used to elicit one nutritional response may not be useful for that of another.
Another challenge occurs when feeding highly bioactive tannin-rich forages. The animal may reject tannin-rich forage due to reduced palatability due to salivary protein binding and astringency.
There is still much to learn about how CT and HT affect ruminant animal nutrition. Much of what we understand about tannin impacts on ruminant nutrition is the result of in vitro studies. While in vitro assays are excellent screening tools, more in vivo confirmation of research findings is needed to move tannin science from use-inspired basic research to application.
A significant challenge to this progress is the lack of domesticated cultivated plants rich in bioactive tannins. As a result, the availability of plant material suited for many ruminant producing regions is limited.
Even when the seed is commercially available, it is often cost-prohibitive due to the limited supply and labor required to collect undomesticated species.
Much of the previous and recent research has emphasized directly inhibiting enteric CH 4 production and increasing rumen undegradable protein. However, there is potential to utilize some tannins' degradation to reduce CH 4 via hydrogen-sink and increase N-use efficiency by improving nutrient synchrony.
There are opportunities to exploit tannins' antioxidant properties, particularly immunomodulatory effects, thermal stress, and human-health products. Tannins' influence on excreta emissions requires attention, but ultimately we need to understand better how excreta from animals consuming tannins alters soil fertility, soil microbiota, and plant growth.
Despite deficiencies in current knowledge about nutritional implications in ruminant animals, polyphenolic phytochemicals i. Further investment in plant breeding and domestication efforts, as well as research efforts to further elucidate how tannins impact ruminant nutrition and system processes, will be necessary to realize the full potential of these important phytochemicals.
The bitter-taste, emulsifying, foaming, non-ionic, non-volatile, membranolytic, surfactant, and structurally diverse saponins glycosides are low molecular weight 1,—1, Da secondary natural compounds in food and non-food plants — , marine plants and animal lineages, including invertebrate sea cucumber species , Chemically, glycoside saponin biosynthesis begins with the catalyzation of acetyl co-enzyme A to isopentenyl pyrophosphate units generated by the multistep mevalonate 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase , a common route to the synthesis of cholesterol and some steroids Saponins comprise the hydrophobic aglycone sapogenin structure that is linked to polar functional groups and attached via a 3-C chain structure to an individual or multiple hydrophilic sugars i.
Aglycones are subject to gene encode enzyme-mediated i. Saponins are chemically categorized into two groups: triterpene or steroidal. Following the isoprenoid pathway, the aglycone splits into pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins TPS with a C aglycone core by cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene , , , yielding the first group of saponins.
The second group is related to the biosynthetic pathway of tetracyclic steroidal metabolites to a C aglycone backbone , , with a 5-ring furostane or a 6-ring spirostane skeleton involving oxygenations and glycosylations Although in the presence of other phytochemistry , saponin mixture in a single plant species occurs , , , such as cucurbitane, cycloartane, dammarane, holostane, hopane, lanostane, lupane, oleanane, tirucallane, taraxastane, tirucallane, and ursane TPS types , have been identified in more than plant species Within a hundred family-group plants, the Anacardiaceae, Araliaceae, Combretaceae, Compositae Campunalaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Leguminosae, Polygalacea, Sapindaceae, Theaceae, and Verbenaceae families, their genera and species attract more attention , — In angiosperm monocotyledons and angiosperm dicotyledons plants, the variation, composition, concentration, distribution, and differential bio-activity of TPS are influenced by plant growth, agronomic and genotype-environmental interactions — Moreover, TPS-plant storage, physical milling, TPS separation, and the bio-accessibility of metabolites in the form of concentrated extracts, derivatives, or food additives to facilitate human-animal utilization may modify aglycones' structure and their bio-physiological, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical activities , , Although paths for those roles are not well-understood and despite differences in chemical structures, different activities exist for TPS, including adjuvant , antibacterial , , antidiabetic , antifungal — , anti-inflammatory , , antioxidative , , antiprotozoal — , antiproliferative , antiviral , , cardiotonic and cardioprotective , and cytotoxic , , effects have been reported.
Additionally, TPS have also exhibited other functional properties, such as food-additive in flavorings 26 , gastroprotective , , hemolytic , hepatic , , immunologic , , insecticide , , anti-obesity therapeutic potential , , , , neuroprotective , vermicide , and emulsifier and stabilizer of the nanosuspensions , Central to TPS's bio-physicochemical network of interactions, the nutritional significance of TPS for ruminants stems largely from their digestive and methanogenic significance Consequently, using Medicago sativa L.
alfalfa and C. sinensis L. tea plant as examples, this review will be limited to considering certain aspects of the bio-metabolic and rumen microbial shifts in sheep and cattle derived from TPS supplementation, which are not entirely consistent and understood.
Compared to non-supplemented diets, Table 1 has a comparative overview of digestive function reaction to alfalfa-TPS Table 1. Effects of triterpenoid saponin TPS supplementation on several ruminal and total gastrointestinal tract parameters 1.
Based on the use of However, using There is limited experimental data on the use of TPS on animal production under mid to long-term management. However, Liu et al. These authors indicated that a high-TPS concentration extract shifted from 0. Nevertheless, when the TPS supplementation increased from 24 to These studies illustrate how sheep responses can be influenced by motivated, focused action.
However, the long-range vision to shape or reshape TPS's use and ensure its relevance to small ruminant needs a particular combination of knowledge and perspectives. It should equate the sheep feed industry interest with clinical science in the context of a deepening sense of animal practice responsibilities to concomitantly address societal needs and ecosystem environmental challenges.
Overall, we can only speculate that the TPS-extract source within the same plant species, the extraction method, compound composition, concentration and dose, way and time of supplementation, diet type, and sheep genetics refer to the range of variation in the summarized alfalfa-TPS supplementation response in Table 1.
Unless such information is forthcoming, there is a risk of limiting factors to benefit from the TPS functional activities described above with sheep if they are susceptible to specific doses in farming grazing conditions. Table 2 illustrates how cattle and sheep respond to TPS supplementation.
It illustrates the impact of TPS doses from tea seeds and alfalfa extract sources on fermentative, microbial, and blood parameters of Brahman Bos indicus and crossbred B.
indicus cattle — kg and sheep The approach is justifiable because, in the current and post-COVID challenges, it is unlikely that individual research could undertake simultaneous cattle-sheep TPS supplementation assessments. However, it would be possible for cooperative research across the livestock industry to justify the expense involving additional knowledge gains.
Table 2. The effects of supplementing triterpenoid saponin TPS from Camellia sinensis L. or Medicago sativa L. As with beef cattle, sheep can cope with increasing doses of tea seed-TPS.
A difference is the range of TPS doses tested between large and small ruminants. Another critical difference is the greater emphasis on cattle measurements after TPS withdrawal than on sheep. This has resulted in the interaction among supplementation digestive and fermentative parameters.
The summarized data indicate that Ramos-Morales et al. However, this information may not be surprising because saponin functional diversity and biological pathways do not always positively correlate Early on, Dourmashkin et al.
Published trials using tea seed-TPS indicated that their anti-methanogenic effect in vitro in small ruminants , , is considered to be a selective saponin-sterol association , on protozoa surface Nevertheless, CPP may increase when plant-TPS , and low cell-wall carbohydrate diets are fed Dourmashkin et al.
Sidhu and Oakenfull also demonstrated that, when orally fed, saponins are not absorbed into the bloodstream but might modulate mitosis , by molecule transport, cell membrane fluidity, and cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo Contrary to the transient antiprotozoal effect of TPS , a linear increase of protozoal numbers is triggered by increasing tea seed-TPS doses in crossbred Brahman cattle, while a defaunation effect was observed at 13 days post-TPS treatment as shown in Table 2 There, TPS modified the structure of the methanogen community at the subgenus by increasing the numbers of methanogens and decreasing their abundance in the RO and SGMT clades, respectively In parallel, TPS supplementation reduced numbers of protozoal genus Entodinium spp.
and increased Euplodinium and Polyplastron genera. The withdraw of TPS supplementation was associated with lower proportions of Isotricha and the greater presence of Metadinium and Eudiplodinium genus This suggests that, in tropical cattle, TPS may have a high selectivity index for protozoa, without an adaptation of those ciliates and other microbial communities to short-term feeding of TPS.
Moreover, it is essential to note that tea seed-TPS as a feed additive appears to exert a differential protozoal and anti-methanogenic effect across Dorper × thin-tailed Han crossbred ewes, Hu rams, and Huzhou lambs Table 2. With these facts in mind, readers are directed to Hu et al.
Together, these findings mirror the belief that further research is required to understand better multifaceted TPS supplementation effects associated with the breed, sex, and animal category sound interactions. Although in our research no comparison of patterns of CH 4 emissions was performed between a single and two equal daily portions of TPS supplementation, there is little doubt that the circadian rhythm of CH 4 emissions from steers after the morning non-supplemented and TPS-supplemented diets is consistent with that observed in twice-daily TPS-supplemented sheep , , and cattle fed Rhodes grass Chloris gayana Kunth ad libitum Conversely, the current review provides evidence that forage diets fed to ruminants could modulate the animal response to TPS-sources inclusion in tropical agriculture , — However, this reason may be further explained by capturing TPS supplementation advantages in seasonal nutrition, fermentability, and methanogenic indices of forages 71 , A sustainable ruminant industry should consider three questions.
How long does the TPS-protozoal selective effect in the rumen ecosystem of tropical cattle last? Is this physio-metabolic response opening the possibility that tea seed-TPS may reduce cattle CH 4 emissions in the long-term rather than as an immediate abatement?
Few ruminant studies beyond methanogenesis have focused on complementary clinical responses to TPS supplementation Tables 1 , 2 to understand or confirm pharmacological discoveries, phytochemical screening, safety, and efficiency of therapies, and in vitro findings.
taurus ] steers tolerate on average This for each breed is ~6. However, as low TPS doses in Brahman In parallel, TPS effects on animal behavior and health indicated that the administration at 0.
Although that high dose was not tested on Belmont Red Composite steers, a similar clinical pattern of symptoms but a lower magnitude were experienced when TPS doses achieved between 0. This was consistent with other studies , that reported that some TPS might disrupt endothelial permeability, infiltration of cellular systems, and active nutrient transport, and nutrient uptake in the gut.
This likely involves a sequential cascade involving cytokines, chemokines, reactive oxygen species expressions, and several intracellular signaling pathways, to name a few However, those cattle dose-dependent effects contrast Klita's et al.
The interaction between TPS and the functional capacity of organs and body systems can produce relatively complicated outcomes. Table 2 underpins blood test differentiation between TPS-plant sources and animal species.
That strategy should, in turn, allow greater understanding of significant differences in blood biochemistry and biological drivers between non-cannulated and cannulated cattle after TPS supplementation Based on the evidence provided here, it appears that such physiological associations could be the vehicle to spread knowledge and refine and collect prolonged assessments to ensure practical use of TPS additives.
Collectively, in response to the natural structure of TPS and their related sapogenins , , , , possible reasons for the observed differences within bovids are the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profile expressions of the host physiological system , This is likely characterized in healthy animals by differential genetic and metabolic binding, inter-individual variability, cellular and molecular self-regulatory feedback mechanisms, induction and inhibition of pathways, pharmaco-genomics, and pharmaco-metabolomics However, supported by the heterogeneity of systemic reactions shown in Tables 1 , 2 , it is suggested that a broad medical approach in future studies is critical to understanding TPS supplementation throughout the interrelationships within and between ruminant species, breeds, and crossbred animals.
Medicine will benefit from increased knowledge of more significant or down-regulation expression of signal transducers, transcription factors, membrane proteins, ion channels, and mitochondrial enzymes in cell lines , Such observations further indicate the relevance of complementary microbiota analysis to understand the impact on ruminal ecology, methanogenesis, and animal physiological functioning following clinical-relevant TSS-supplementation and at withdrawal endpoints.
In summary, although over the last years, review research advances in TPS have been evident 27 , , — , the disparities in physicochemical characteristics of close and non-closely intermediate related compounds in TPS-containing plants — from one to another material depends on the vast structural diversity of TPS molecules , Therefore, feasible investigations should focus on TPS physio-metabolic interactions after ingestion to elucidate complex interactions with the diet's nutritive value and substantial variation in gastrointestinal microflora and animal metabolisms.
This is reasonably straightforward in intermolecular forces, genetic-molecular animal predispositions, cellular signaling frameworks, intra-cellular-matric chemoreceptors, metabolic fluxes, multi-enzyme cascade, and morphological changes. The approach across the catalog of TPS-plants, their phytochemical compounds, and interactions will promote secondary compound-physiological-based ruminant models 15 , human and animal health, regulatory environments, ecosystems management, and eco-efficient ruminant production.
Various vitamins and related minerals, many of which play critical roles as antioxidants important for growth and health, are sometimes deficient in ruminant diets.
Ruminant requirements change with species, class, age, weight, health, and growth performance , but much of the research into these requirements are outdated and not representative of current production systems. Vitamin and related mineral deficiencies most often affect animals fed in confinement and only rarely occur in those allowed to graze or browse pastures and rangeland containing abundant, diverse plant species except when soils are severely deficient, as is sometimes the case with Se When deficiencies occur, they are often a result of incorrect ration formulations or antagonistic effects e.
However, they can be corrected by supplementation, feed changes, or allowing animals access to diverse pastures containing dicotyledenous species, such as legumes. Historically, cattle confined feeding operations have supplemented ruminants at or above published requirements as a preventative measure In grazing or browsing ruminants, most vitamins and minerals necessary in cellular antioxidant activity can be ingested from fresh plant material.
In turn, these are transferred to ruminant products; dairy products especially can accumulate these compounds, often quantified as antioxidant protection degree or total antioxidant capacity Unsaturated fatty acids, phenols, and volatile compounds are likewise transferred from forages to dairy products and play important roles in taste and odor as well as eventual consumer health These are incredibly rich in grazing systems, at times ten times greater than in stall-fed ruminant diets Therefore, vitamin and mineral supplementation often becomes the best management option only in confined feeding operations or monoculture grazing systems.
The α-tocopherol and related compounds vitamin E and closely associated selenium Se are common feed-related deficiencies in confined ruminants not fed fresh green forages Both are important in antioxidation processes that mitigate stress. Vitamin E, in conjunction with Se, plays a crucial role in cellular antioxidation.
When deficient, physiological and immunological functions can be impaired, as can growth performance in confinement Retinol vitamin A is fat-soluble and plays an important role in ruminant eyesight, bone development, epithelial cell function, reproduction, as well as general immune functions In ruminants, retinol enhances antioxidation that protects against cellular free-radicals Carotenes are retinol precursors, and, under pasture or rangeland conditions, over 10 carotenoids have been documented in forages that can meet ruminant requirements Their presence in milk produces distinctive butter and cheese colors that consumers identify with grazing-based dairy.
However, feeding trials in confined feeding systems where fresh, green forage was lacking indicate that retinol supplementation to sheep and calves increases its presence in animal tissue, indicating that deficiencies may occur.
There is also evidence that Vitamin A can interfere with Vitamin E retention in ruminant blood plasma, liver, and fat tissue. Ascorbic acid vitamin C inhibits cortisol release, is a robust cellular antioxidant, and plays a vital role in ruminant products' fatty acid profile, especially dairy Its supplementation to confined ewes, for example, increases the antioxidant concentration in milk It also affects lamb, but not kid, meat quality parameters when administered before transport and slaughter Diet can be a strong determinant of herbivore blood and milk ascorbic acid concentrations , , and its injection in confined cattle can reduce mortality rates It has no effect on primiparous dairy cows or any other health or reproductive factor for either class of animals.
This indicates that, in confined feeding conditions, these can be essential supplements in multiparous ruminants where vitamin B can become depleted over time.
No similar positive effect of folic acid and vitamin B 12 supplement in pastured ruminants has been observed. Stress on ruminants affects animal health by increasing cellular oxidation. Stresses include abiotic factors, such as climate mainly temperature extremes or management, including transport or handling Biotic stresses include interaction with other animals, reproduction, lactation, and feed quantity and quality deficiencies, as well as numerous other potential interactions with the living environment.
Oxidative stress occurs when reactive oxygen species or free radicals surpasses the detoxification capacity of antioxidants. Activation of inflammatory-immune response and decreased overall immune function can result.
There is evidence indicating that oxidative stress during weaning and transport plays a crucial role in the occurrence of bovine respiratory disease , and affects feed efficiency in newly received feedlot cattle.
Ingesting antioxidants, such as vitamin E and related Se, can help reverse these adverse effects. When these are limited in the diet of confined ruminants consuming a limited diversity of fresh forages, supplementation can mitigate the adverse effects of stress on growth and product quality , , Ruminal microbes can synthesize as well as degrade vitamins and other antioxidative dietary compounds.
Diet affects this dynamic. As a result, slow-release rumen boli containing vitamins and minerals have proven effective for enhancing confined ewe reproductive functions However, it is unclear if vitamins played any role and their effectiveness declines after the initial weeks.
The effectiveness of slow-release Cu, Se, or Co has proven especially useful in pastures where soils and consequently forages are low in any one of these minerals. However, because forages typically supply vitamins above rumen microorganism requirements, their supplementation has not been widely studied in grazing or browsing ruminants.
In a feedlot where fresh forages are rarely an ingredient, however, this picture changes drastically. Volatile compounds ingested by grazing and browsing lactating ruminants change milk and dairy product fatty acid profile and antioxidant properties — Not only can this extend product shelf life, but it can also be important for health benefits to consumers as well as unique flavors in milk, butter, and cheese that arise from consuming certain forages that vary by region and season These are driven by forage composition, particularly dicotyledonous plant species When animals are fed in confinement, supplementation can compensate for vitamin deficiencies in the animal, which is then reflected in the product In North American milk production, where strong flavors are not a consumer preference, forages containing these compounds may not always be desirable.
The role of Vitamin E and other antioxidants in ruminant nutrition and health has been well-documented. Without them, animal health suffers, and production yield and quality decline. What is not always recognized is that their supplementation is largely irrelevant to pasture or rangeland-fed animals that ingest these naturally from fresh, green forages.
These antioxidants readily appear in products originating from these free-ranging ruminants Grazing and browsing ruminants, especially in ecosystems with diverse plant species, rarely benefit from dietary supplements.
The same is not the case for confined feeding operations or monoculture grazing systems. Confined animal feeding operations for feeding ruminants high energy diets invariably enhance animal production and health when they include synthetic vitamins and other antioxidant-enhancing supplements in the feed.
This will come from fresh green forages or, in their absence, as synthetic supplements. These are generally injected to increase efficiency and bypass rumen degradation, but slow-release ruminal boli may also play a role in systems that do not lend themselves to repeated injections Very little is known about the antioxidant efficacy of feeding conserved e.
freshly harvested greenchop forages to confined ruminants. Feeding trials comparing cut-and-carry or greenchop systems to conserved forages should also examine the role of forage species, functional groups e.
grazing especially for goats , and species diversity. Additional trials should examine the benefits of allowing animals to graze, browse, or even pen-feed selectivity self-medication for forages that lend themselves to greater antioxidant activity in the ruminant, animal products, and humans who consume products containing high or low concentrations of ruminant-originating antioxidants.
Additional research should compare the efficacy of plant vs. synthetic vitamin sources in ruminant diets. Should vitamins be systematically quantified in ruminant feedlot diet components? Quantifying vitamins important in ruminant cellular antioxidant functions in confined animal feed may not be as useful as measuring key minerals, mostly because the former is broken down by rumen microorganisms fed high concentrate and high energy feeds, making these unavailable for absorption in the remainder of the gastrointestinal tract.
Supplementing vitamins up to minimum recommended levels has already been proven beneficial to ruminants in confinement, under heavy reproduction pressure, or under management-induced stresses, such as handling or transport. Additional research topics needing attention include the effectiveness of slow-release rumen boli for vitamins in feedlot systems.
Timing reproduction, weaning, season, maturity , rumen microorganism breakdown leading to inefficiencies, and duration of release all merit attention. The efficacy of slow-release supplements for confined feeding vis-à-vis fresh forages classes, species, maturity, diversity also merits focus, especially regarding animal and human consumer health benefits.
The key question is, should we invest resources in this phytochemical? For pasture-based systems that include diverse forage species, including legumes and other forbs, any investment is unlikely to produce any measurable benefit except in cases where soils are deficient in key minerals, such as Se, important for antioxidant health.
More research is needed in the case of confined feeding operations, especially long-duration systems, such as confined dairies. Examples include comparing the economic and health returns of year-round fresh, diverse forage systems where mild climates allow cultivation during any season.
Alkaloids represent the largest class of secondary plant compounds in North-American perennial plants and occur in many rangeland grasses and weeds , where they mostly have gained attention as a potential toxin for ruminants and other pasture livestock in case of overfeeding of alkaloid-containing plants.
Alkaloids were initially classified as cyclic compounds containing N in a negative oxidation state, derived from an amino acid. However, some pseudo-alkaloids are not derived from amino acids and alkaloid-like compounds amines that do not contain N within any ring-structure.
Given the confusing nomenclature of alkaloids, pseudo-alkaloids, and amines, it seems more convenient to classify them based on their biogenetic origins, where four groups were created: 1 alkaloids derived from ornithine, arginine, lysine, histidine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, anthranilic acid, and nicotinic acid; 2 purine alkaloids e.
Alkaloids may be produced by plants and fungi infesting certain pastureland plants, such as the endophytic fungus N. coenophialum in tall fescue that contains the alkaloids peramine, ergot, and loline Overall, forage plants that include significant concentrations of alkaloids are considered toxic as many adverse effects in livestock exist, including acute and chronic symptoms, such as damage to the central nervous system, liver damage, muscle cramps, and death The toxicological effects associated with alkaloids, specifically the broadly present class of pyrrolizidines, has been in discussion since the s, specifically in context with animal production Specifically, breeding efforts to remove tannins from forage for ruminants to optimize meat production may have possibly reduced tannins and alkaloids' interactions, thus increasing the toxicity of the latter Many plants with high alkaloids in the leaf are not palatable to herbivores due to bitterness It has been observed that wild animals e.
This resistance to chronic alkaloid intoxication has been, in part, ascribed to intestinal microbiome containing strains that can degrade alkaloids Initial efforts to remove alkaloids from the food chain of livestock production did not consider the crucial role of alkaloids across several ecological networks Ergot alkaloids e.
gov , but an endophytic fungus— Neotyphodium coenophialum —produces them. Through a mutualistic symbiotic relationship, it enables the tall fescue to thrive during drought and cold weather and resist insect predation, nematode infestation, and some diseases , but it can be devastating to the ruminant animal , In a previous study, a genetically modified non-producing-ergot N.
coenophialum has been incorporated into tall fescue to still yield the plant's agronomic benefits without causing toxicity to the grazing animal Similarly, perennial ryegrass Lolium perenne L. lolli —an endophyte fungus that produces the biologically active ergot, peramine, and lolitrem alkaloids, which cause ryegrass staggers in livestock In contrast, reed canarygrass Phalaris arundinacea L.
produces the alkaloid gramine in leaf sheaths and stems, reducing ruminant's forage intake, thus limiting growth and development Simultaneously, various therapeutic activities have been ascribed to alkaloids, including antioxidant, cancer-preventive, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilatory activities — , but it has not been well-investigated how livestock could benefit from these beneficial activities from alkaloids.
Many plant extracts that have been investigated for the beneficial actions of contained polyphenols and terpenoids may also contain alkaloids contributing to their biological activities, for example, giant milkweed or herbal mixtures containing polyphenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids Additionally, the microbiome of ruminants, including bacteria, archaea, protozoa, and fungi, in part, metabolizes alkaloids to non-toxic metabolites ; however, causal relationships have not been well-investigated.
For example, Koester et al. low tolerance to fescue toxicosis have vastly different microbiota compositions, specifically fungal phylotypes Neocallimastigaceae, potent fiber-degrading fungi, were consistently more abundant in the tolerant cattle. Additionally, it has not been well-investigated, which microbial enzymes are required to perform alkaloid metabolism Overall, alkaloids' beneficial role to ruminants and their synergistic contributions to ecological networks in forage-animal management has not been well-investigated.
The contribution of alkaloids in complex plant extracts beneficial to ruminant nutrition also remains to be explored. Unlike the previous phytochemicals that maintain a reasonably specific chemical makeup, EO are mixtures of compounds comprised of previously discussed phytochemicals and other intrinsic chemicals.
The term EO was likely derived from quinta essentia i. Essential oils are classically defined as complex, multi-component mixtures of various volatile and non-volatile compounds, including acids, acetones, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, phenolics, and terpenes Essential oils are commonly extracted from materials found throughout the plant, including bark, leaves, flowers, roots, seeds, and stems.
The biological properties of an EO are determined by its chemical profile that can vary depending upon the extraction process, plant material, plant maturity, and growing environment In many cases, much of the pharmaceutical properties exhibited by EO can be attributed to the phytochemicals that comprise an EO e.
Essential oils can exhibit antimicrobial, antiseptic, antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immuno-modulating activities. In general, EO display hydrophobic or lipophilic attributes that result in a high affinity for bacterial cell membranes, generating ion leakage that can ultimately result in ATP depletion and cell lysis , Since ancient times, EO have been exploited by humans for their pharmaceutical properties , with EO currently being used regularly in agriculture, cosmetic, food, homeopathic, pharmaceutical, and therapeutic industries Essential oils are cited as improving animal health and nutritional status by stimulating the circulatory, digestive, and immune systems, as well as reducing pathogenic bacteria and parasites , The nutritional effects of EO are primarily attributed to their antimicrobial properties that are comprised of multiple interaction mechanisms.
Gram-positive bacteria are considered more susceptible to EO than gram-negative bacteria due to both hydrophobic and lipophilic interactions affecting cell membrane stability However, small molecular weight components, via hydrophobic interactions, may be able to penetrate and affect gram-negative bacteria The application of EO in ruminant nutrition has focused on ruminal modulation to shift the microbial consortium toward one that improves nutrient use efficiency Significant emphases have primarily remained focused on N-metabolism, CH 4 abatement, and the VFA profile 36 , Essential oils' complex and varied composition may provide the potential to alleviate tolerance and resistance developments associated with medically important antimicrobials and synthetic compounds.
The basis for employing EO in ruminant diets is to modify the microbial population so that efficient fermentation pathways are used, and the animal's nutrient use efficiency is increased. The primary means of accomplishing this is by altering the VFA profile lower acetate-to-propionate ratio and a reduction in fermentative waste products e.
The mode of actions provided by EO suggests they may be able to modify ruminal fermentation similar to ionophores by decreasing the prevalence of Gram-positive bacteria, including hyper-ammonia producing bacteria and those that readily produce formate or H 2 In vivo research has demonstrated that EO reduce the acetate-to-propionate ratio to a level comparable to ionophores when ruminants are fed high-quality diets e.
However, this result is inconsistent, and it is not easy to discern if the decreased acetate-to-propionate ratio results from reduced acetate, increased propionate, or both, as all scenarios have been observed. An increase in butyrate has also been indicated in some studies , and is cited as an indication that EO and ionophores have differing modes of action , As well, ruminal branched-chain volatile fatty acids have been reduced and increased , in vivo , indicating an alteration in the cellulolytic microbes or those that synthesize branched-chain volatile fatty acids from branched-chain amino acids.
Both branched-chain volatile fatty acids and branched-chain amino acids are essential for the normal fermentative functions of cellulolytic microbes in the rumen 1. Overall, the addition of EO often imparts no change to the total VFA concentration , However, increased , and reduced , total VFA concentrations have been reported, but the reduction in total VFA concentration is typically not to the extent observed with ionophores 2 , 22 , The effect of EO on digestibility is a significant point of contingency, but it has not been a focal point for much of the in vivo work in beef cattle.
Of those that have examined digestibility, there was no effect on DM digestibility or neutral detergent fiber digestibility , , The result is similar in dairy cattle, with only marginal effects on digestibility , , , As with digestibility, EO's inclusion does not appear to affect significantly intake, at least not at the supplementation levels commonly used in vivo.
The provision of EO in vivo has not demonstrated a repeatable effect on ruminal CH 4 without suppressing digestibility. Supplementing diets with EO has decreased CH 4 in dairy cattle — , but did not change of increased CH 4 production in beef cattle , Although CH 4 production has not been measured, when feeding EO, protozoa and methanogen numbers decline in vivo with a corresponding reduction in the acetate-to-propionate ratio , The beneficial effects are thought to be due to selective inhibition of protozoa and methanogens; however, the negative or ineffectual results are likely the result of EO demonstrating indiscriminate binding or lack of adequate biological activity.
Much research has investigated the potential application of EO to reduce proteolysis and deamination in the rumen. However, the consensus indicates that EO have little-to-no effect on the ruminal breakdown of protein and amino acids in beef or dairy cattle.
The vast majority of research indicates no difference in ruminal NH 3 when EO are included in the diet , — Similarly, numerous studies have failed to indicate a difference in blood or milk urea N from animals provided EO , , The lack of effect is thought to result from EO being supplemented at too low of a rate to alter N metabolism However, reduced ruminal digestibility had no effect on ruminal NH 3 or blood urea nitrogen levels in beef heifers supplemented with EO , This could indicate that some species of hyper-ammonia-producing bacteria are less sensitive to EO Essential oils increase the flow of non-microbial N to the small intestine, as well as stimulate digestive enzymes and alter microbial populations in the lower tract.
However, minimal investigation of rumen outflow and post-rumen digestion has been performed, particularly in vivo. In beef heifers, a linear increase in the flow of non-microbial N to the duodenum has been observed with an increasing rate of eugenol or cinnamaldehyde , However, post-ruminal N digestibility does not improve when feeding EO , , , The inclusion of EO yields equal or lesser ruminal N digestibility with no difference in intestinal digestibility.
This results in total-tract N digestibility not different or lower than the control. A similar trend is present for starch and neutral detergent fiber digestibility, ruminally and post-ruminally. However, increased total-tract acid detergent fiber digestibility has been observed and attributed to a stimulatory effect of EO on digestive enzymes , , In ruminants, no research has directly investigated EO as a stimulus for gastric or intestinal enzymes.
However, this is not implausible as EO have demonstrated the ability to reduce pathogenic fecal bacteria and diarrhea in calves , as well as reduce fecal DM and viscosity in dairy cattle Essential oils have primarily been investigated using in vitro methods, batch or continuous culture, particularly when screening multiple compounds and rates.
In many instances, batch incubations have not adequately represented the dynamic rumen environment, whereas continuous culture has provided fermentation and outflow data comparable to in vivo results.
Over the past decade, in vivo methods have been regularly implemented, but efforts have mainly focused on dairy and feedlot sectors, with little to no investigation into grazing beef cattle. Much of the in vivo research focused on fermentation parameters and digestive functions has utilized low animal numbers 4 — 16 in Latin square or switchback designs.
Some larger pen-fed studies have emphasized performance and carcass characteristics with digestive attributes being investigated with a small number of cannulated animals. A shortcoming of multiple fermentation studies is that the use of low animal numbers has not greatly progressed our knowledge of the inter-animal variation associated with EO provision.
For in vivo investigations, the length of EO or treatment provision varies greatly. Research focusing on digestion and fermentation commonly utilized to day feeding periods, whereas the larger performance trials typically ranged from 80 to days on feed.
There is an apparent deficiency in fermentation and microbiota data for animals fed EO for more than 30 days, limiting our knowledge of digestive or microbial alterations with prolonged feeding. The successful application of EO depends on numerous factors, but the overall effect of EO is unclear due to a lack of consistency among measured variables.
Even so, EO have regularly increased intake and improved the VFA profile and feed conversion in feeder cattle, as well as reduced CH 4 and increased milk yield and feed conversion in dairy cattle.
The reason for the different effects between a feeder and dairy cattle is likely, at least in part, a result of differences in diet composition, particularly the level and type of roughage. However, there is little information to assist in making comparisons to high-roughage diets.
In a meta-analysis of the essential oil blend, Agolin Ruminant ® , in dairy cattle, Belanche et al. Unfortunately, most digestive studies have utilized periods spanning 3—4 weeks, perhaps not allowing enough time for consistent outcomes to be realized.
In a meta-analysis investigating the effects of EO in sheep diets, it was determined that EO increased neutral detergent fiber digestibility and propionate concentration and reduced protozoa populations and acetate concentrations However, in contrast to dairy cattle, EO efficacy in sheep appeared to be highest within the first 30 days and then began diminishing.
Regardless of species, the methodologies commonly used to study fermentation have not progressed our knowledge of EO efficacy with prolonged feeding. There appears to be potential for EO to improve animal efficiency and performance, but the variation among studies makes it difficult to parse out the effect of EO vs.
random variation. If EO are to be commercially used in ruminant production, emphasis should be placed on using methods that improve the consistency of results i.
Research using forage diets merit increased attention, as improved fermentation profiles would greatly benefit this sector. Apart from nutrition, there seem to be EO opportunities for internal and external parasite control. Multiple in vitro studies have reported acaricidal activity of EO and have successfully used them to control cattle ticks — , with evidence indicating EO as a potential method of controlling flies and lice — This is a vital area of research due to the rapid increase in parasite resistance to synthetic compounds, providing a large opportunity to investigate feed-through and topically administered EO in ruminant species.
Another area that merits attention is the effect of EO on thermal stress. There is scientific and anecdotal evidence indicating that EO's provision may reduce the stress associated with hyperthermia — , but the underlying mechanisms and efficacy in a production scenario are unknown. Although EO's nutritional effects may not be consistent, there is potential for EO to improve other health parameters that directly and indirectly affect the nutritional status of ruminants.
Should researchers invest resources in EO? Based on the current literature, adequate data point to the benefits of EO to ruminant production. Additional efforts should invest in the long-term and diversity of these compounds. However, research projects must be performed in a manner that better capture the effect of EO and promotes consistency among trials, rather than focusing on the least publishable unit.
Many scientists embarked on alternative replacements to antibiotics in animal operations in the last 15 years after widespread concern over AMR due to antibiotics' perceived broad use in animal production. Phytochemicals became the preferred research pursuit, even though these compounds have been studied and applied in many fields long before AMR became publicized.
Phytochemicals embody a broad spectrum of chemical components produced by plants and some fungi to act as chemicals against predatorial microbes, insects, and herbivores. Therefore, the idea of using them to manipulate ruminal fermentation and to establish other phytochemoprophylactic prevent animal diseases and phytochemotherapeutic treat animal diseases activities gained sympathizers.
However, because of inconclusive or contradictory findings, more targeted research is needed to confirm and validate published findings before definitive recommendations of phytochemicals usage in ruminant nutrition are drawn, such as what, when, and how much to use. Although some discoveries are encouraging, disagreements and lack of repeatability exist among studies, particularly for CT and saponins.
Alkaloids may also have a potential untapped benefit in ruminant nutrition. Although humans have long used alkaloids for their pharmacological properties, their phytochemical usage as feed additives in ruminants has not been sufficiently scrutinized.
In part, given the intricacies in measuring and classifying alkaloids chemically, they may act as ghost compounds alongside other phytochemicals of known importance as plants produce many phytochemicals concurrently. Likewise, terpenes, vitamins, essential oils, and other natural plant antioxidants play a large role in rumen ecology and function.
These are most prevalent but least studied in fresh forages, especially in rangelands. The difficulty of isolating their individual effects in forage-based systems make them especially challenging to describe. This, however, does not detract from the critical roles they plan in ruminant ecosystems.
The importance and individual effects are more easily identified in feedlot situations where concentrates and preserved forages contain fewer compounds, with consequent adverse effects on rumen microbiome health and ruminant nutrition.
More research in these compounds in concentrated animal feeding operations is therefore merited. The phytochemicals' role in sustainable ruminant production is undeniable, but much uncertainty remains.
Scientists have yet to answer the sustainability issues before relying exclusively on phytochemicals as a sensational remedy for AMR, especially in complete rations lacking fresh forages and precluding ruminant feed selection.
Phytochemical feed additives may have a place in sustainable production scenarios only if more convincing results of their efficacy and effectiveness in replacing antibiotics are dependably identified. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
AMR, antimicrobial resistance; BW, body weight; CPP, ciliate protozoa population; CT, condensed tannins; DM, dry matter; DMI, dry matter intake; EO, essential oils; GIN, gastrointestinal nematode; HT, hydrolyzable tannin; TPS, triterpenoid saponins; and VFA, volatile fatty acids.
Tedeschi LO, Fox DG.
Following this advice and Emmer grain benefits a phytochemixals of colorful plant-based Nutritionxl Emmer grain benefits a great way to benefit from Meal timing for optimal performance called phytochemicals, aspectts addition phytocheimcals a variety of Nuteitional such as vitamins, minerals and fiber. Phyotchemicals are compounds in plants. These substances are found in plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds and legumes. They give plants their color, flavor and aroma. Much of the current evidence on the benefits of phytochemicals has come from observing people who eat mainly plant-based diets. These people have been shown to have significantly lower rates of certain types of cancers and heart disease. Eating a diet that is mostly plant-based is recommended by the American Institute for Cancer Research. They are aspfcts in two different formats for Nutritionap Emmer grain benefits professional users. These resources Nutirtional produced by Dr. Nutritiona Emmer grain benefits and Nufritional research staff. Produced by Ashley A. Nutritional aspects of phytochemicals, BS, Hydration level measurement Zidenberg-Cherr, PhD, Center for Nutrition in Schools, Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, Phytochemicals are bioactive compounds found in vegetables, fruits, cereal grains, and plant-based beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemical consumption is associated with a decrease in risk of several types of chronic diseases due to in part to their antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects 1.
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