Antioxidants in plants -
In another experiment, the hesperidin flavonoid activated the secretion of superoxide dismutase and glutathione Jeong et al. Hesperidin Matias et al. In addition, recent studies have shown that treating neurons in the cerebral cortex with microglial cells cultured with agathisflavone may protect them from oxidative stress by modulating estrogen signaling.
Agathisflavone has been found to significantly increase the number of neuronal progenitor cells and mature neurons without increasing astrocytes or microglia, and also to effectively reduce the inflammatory factors factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, NO, and PGE2 Bakhtiari et al.
Other studies have shown that agathisflavone, which regulates estrogen signaling, stimulates neuronal production in vitro and enhances the neuroprotective properties of microglia and astrocytes.
Phenolic acid refers to a compound having several phenolic hydroxyl groups on the same benzene ring and is an allelochemical substance that regulates the growth state of plants through the process of allelopathy. Ferulic acid is a ubiquitous phenolic acid found in the leaves and seeds of plants.
The conjugated structure of the ferulic acid molecule can form a relatively stable phenoxy radical in ultraviolet light to terminate the free radical chain reaction Dos Santos Souza et al. In mice, it was found that ferulic acid can increase SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px activity in the brains of depressed mice and reduce TBA-RS levels in the blood, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex Lin et al.
Additionally, ferulic acid can significantly reduce seizure intensity, myoclonic spasms, and cognitive decline in epileptic mice Lenzi et al. Similarly, Wang et al. Ellagic acid has also been shown to increase the activity of GSH-Px and SOD and to decrease the level of MDA in the striatum of PD mice Wang et al.
Even more, ellagic acid has additionally been shown to increase monoamine oxidase B MAO-B , nuclear factor erythrocyte derivation 2 , Nrf2, and heme oxygenase 1 HO-1 and reduce the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase TH -positive neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta SNC Sarkaki et al.
In a rat model of arsenic-induced injury, the hippocampus was treated with ellagic acid, which was shown to regulate total ROS production, apoptosis markers, BAX and Bcl2, and inflammatory markers IL-1β, TNFα, and INFγ. At the same time, ellagic acid also prevented the decrease of the mitochondrial membrane potential Baluchnejadmojarad et al.
Yet another phenolic acid, rosmarinic acid, has been found to reduce the amount of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde, which in turn attenuates cellular oxidative stress and protects hydrogen peroxide-treated glial cells Firdaus et al.
Rosmarinic acid further regulates the activity of Nrf2 to protect PC cells from oxidative stress Gao et al. This substance can also reduce the oxidative stress Lee et al.
At the same time, rosmarinic acid promotes the upregulation of TH and brain-derived neurotrophic factor BDNF genes to alleviate the cytotoxicity of H 2 O 2 -induced N2A cells Ghaffari et al. A rat AD model was established by injecting Aβ4 into the bilateral lateral ventricle of rats, which resulted in a decrease in acetylcholine content and acetylcholinesterase activity.
Treatment with rosmarinic acid prevented the observed changes in the Aβ group and in another study attenuated Aβ staining and astrocyte activation and enhanced auditory abilities Kantar Gok et al.
Tannins are widely distributed in plants and usually refer to plant polyphenols with a relative molecular mass of — u. The antioxidant ability of tannins is related to the position and binding mode of the phenolic hydroxyl groups. Nevertheless, the tannin-like antioxidant ability is significantly different across different sub-structures.
Catechin and its derivatives are the main functional components in tea and many studies have shown that the effects of catechin on mitochondria-related pathways can prevent neurodegeneration and delay the decline of brain function Assuncao and Andrade, Specifically, epigallocatechingallate EGCG was found to enhance the clearance of AD-associated phosphorylated tau species in neurons Chesser et al.
The use of EGCG and related phenolic compounds can also redirect the amyloid-forming aggregation pathway of transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans strains that express amplified ATX3 amyloid toward non-toxic aggregation and prevent calcium influx-mediated cytotoxicity of nerve cells Visentin et al.
When DOX has been used to induce memory deficits in Wistar rats, catechin treatment was able to reduce neuronal toxicity and improve cognitive performance in a time- and dose-dependent manner Cheruku et al. Tannin is the main enzyme involved in the production and deposition of Aβ peptide, which regulates β-secretase BACE1 activity and is a natural inhibitor of protein expression.
Tannin also destabilizes neurotoxic Aβ fibrils and inhibits in vitro aggregation of tau peptides Braidy et al. Grapes and lotus roots contain a wide range of tannins, the main functional component of which is proanthocyanidin PC.
Song et al. Vitamins in the body have always been regarded as one of the most bioavailable nutrients. Some vitamins, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and carotenoids, have strong antioxidant and neuroprotective effects and are commonly found in plants.
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, has four hydroxyl functional groups, two of which are enol hydroxyl groups. Therefore, vitamin C is easily oxidized and dehydrogenated, which makes it extremely reductive and therefore also a highly effective antioxidant.
The vitamin C transporter SVCT2 Berger et al. The regenerative function of vitamin C can further produce glial cells Guo et al. Vitamins have excellent neuroprotective effects against the oxidative stress induced by metal and non-metals, and can protect against lead-induced neuronal apoptosis in rats Ebrahimzadeh-Bideskan et al.
Specifically, the ability of vitamin C to scavenge free radicals can reduce the degree of oxidative stress and increase the viability of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex and striatum Ballaz and Rebec, Vitamin E mainly differs from vitamin C in the sense that it is fat-soluble.
Vitamin E features hydroxyl hydrogen on a diacetyl alcohol ring, which produces a strong reduction effect on oxygen free radicals and effectively inhibits lipid peroxidation. Therefore, vitamin E can reduce oxidative stress and the production of free radicals and prevent cognitive decline caused by aging.
In an accelerated aging rat model, vitamin E supplementation reduced the number of nerve cells lost due to aging La Fata et al. Vitamin E also increased the neuronal cell area of prefrontal cortical cells, the number of glial cells and neurons, the length of synapses, and plasticity effects Rafati et al.
It also prevented changes in the shape of dendrites of nerve cells that lead to learning deficits Veinbergs et al. The concentration of vitamin E in the brain is negatively correlated with the concentration of Aβ in the brain Morris et al.
Vitamin E also prevents the metabolism of LOX, a key mediator of glutamate-induced neurodegeneration, by preventing arachidonic acid from entering the catalytic site of LOX and enabling vitamin E to effectively prevent neuronal degeneration Khanna et al.
Furthermore, vitamin E can interact with vitamin C and flavonoids to enhance the ability of antioxidants to scavenge free radicals Kadoma et al.
Carotenoids are widely present in plant pigments, and their chemical structure is a polymer of 8 isoprene and an oxidized derivative thereof, which is a precursor of vitamin A. Since the chemical structure of carotenoids contains many conjugated double bonds, electrons can enrich the structure while maintaining high chemical stability and fighting free radicals.
At the same time, carotenoids also exhibit obvious effects for inhibiting lipid peroxidation, which can effectively prevent brain aging. According to nutrition epidemiology research, the middle-aged population consuming a diet rich in carotenoids generally scores higher on neuropsychological tests than that consuming an ordinary diet Kesse-Guyot et al.
This concept is supported by the fact that carotenoids can inhibit the formation of Aβ in the AD brain Obulesu et al. In the past 10 years, natural carotenoids, such as astaxanthin Hussein et al. Astaxanthin is the most potent antioxidant in flavonoids and is found in the leaves and fruits of plants.
When supplementing with astaxanthin in the hippocampus, neonatal mice were found to show enhanced cognitive ability compared to adult mice Yook et al. In terms of mechanism, astaxanthin can cross the blood—brain barrier Petri and Lundebye, to exert its antioxidant Pan et al.
Astaxanthin also attenuates the increase in CHOP and ER chaperone protein via the MAPK pathway and inhibits the influx of calcium ions Grimmig et al.
It is generally known that Aβ causes long-term dysfunction in the hippocampus of mice; however, the injection of crocin can improve the physiological state of cells in the hippocampus and the overall memory of mice Lin et al.
Finally, lycopene is widely present in tomatoes and has high neurotrophic value Shi and Le Maguer, In a model of Aβ-induced neuronal injury, lycopene did not activate NF-κB, p65, or TLR4 expression Tripathi et al.
The associated decrease in the level of Bcl-2 Feng et al. In fact, after 14 days of eating tomatoes, the expression of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and striatum of small mammals was not reduced even under increased oxidative stress di Matteo et al.
Alkaloids are strong antioxidants with a complex structure; the more nitrogen atoms that are exposed in the heterocyclic structure, the easier it is to combine with reactive oxygen and free radicals.
There are many naturally occurring plant-derived alkaloids that have long been used to develop useful pharmaceutical substances Khadem and Marles, The astragalus alkaloid and its derivatives are an important target for biological research because they are commonly found in food sources such as coffee, tea, and potatoes Monteiro et al.
The main derivatives of astragalus are methylxanthine, theophylline 1,3-dimethylxanthine , theobromine 3,7-dimethylxanthine , and caffeine 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine Li et al.
Caffeine is considered to be a more beneficial derivative of astragalus to humans Machnik et al. Therefore, proper caffeine intake can be very beneficial to the nervous system in general Cappelletti et al. Caffeine is an antagonist of adenosine A 1 and A 2A receptors, which are closely related to the regulation of synaptic plasticity and energy metabolism in neurons Cellai et al.
This is particularly important for neurodegenerative diseases such as epilepsy Masino et al. Additionally, memory loss caused by chronic stress is linked to the A2AR receptor and caffeine acts as an antagonist to prevent and treat such symptoms Kaster et al.
Another common alkaloid that affects the nervous system is the nicotine commonly found in tobacco. A large amount of smoking and nicotine intake is an important risk factor for death. Nicotine acetylcholine receptors nACHRs Hogg et al.
In the AD brain, the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7nAChR can be damaged with Aβ knots to form a complex that disrupts synaptic function Ni et al.
Furthermore, it has been found in humans and animals that nicotine enhances the learning ability Poorthuis et al. A polysaccharide refers to the natural substance formed by polymerizing more than 10 monosaccharide molecules.
Many polysaccharides have a scavenging effect on reactive oxygen species and free radicals and are responsible for many basic functions of the brain. They can bind to proteins and lipids, stabilize the structure of nerve cells and synapses Martin, , and are used as a source of cellular energy Falkowska et al.
Polysaccharides can exert many functions through the metabolism of the brain and can contribute to the formation of neurites and synapses in neurons Miyata and Kitagawa, They can also provide energy substances such as lactic acid to neurons through the metabolism of glial cells Falkowska et al.
Similar protective effects can be observed across numerous types of nerve cells by inhibiting GSK-3β Hu et al. A biologically active peptide, known as a polypeptide, can be obtained via the process of protein hydrolysis.
The function of a polypeptide is related to its amino acid composition and structure. When ingested by humans, plant proteins are hydrolyzed by the digestive system and many small peptides and amino acids are obtained. These amino acids often activate PKA while glutamate transporters of neurons and astrocytes can promote the cascade of the MAPK reaction Steyfkens et al.
There are a wide variety of active peptides that include antioxidant peptides and opioid peptides that have important neuroprotective effects. Glutathione is an essential peptide in plant growth and development and plays an important role in the antioxidant system of animals.
Specifically, glutathione peroxidase can remove large numbers of free radicals for antioxidant metabolism Noctor et al. The mitochondrial metabolism of reactive oxygen species also requires the use of glutathione Fernandez-Checa et al. These processes are important to counteract oxidative stress Dukhande et al.
Recently, it has been confirmed that in the ischemia—reperfusion model in rodents, cerebral nerve cell damage is associated with glutathione depletion, and post-ischemia recovery is associated with an increase in the concentration of glutathione Won et al.
By detecting the concentration of glutathione in the brain of AD patients, it was found that the concentration of glutathione was less than that of normal brains and showed an age preference Rae and Williams, Furthermore, peptides of soy protein, rice protein, and hydrolysate of wheat gliadin derived from wheat Teschemacher, have opioid activity and can cause an increase in the antioxidant and methylation capacity of nerve cells Trivedi et al.
Opioid peptides act in conjunction with opioid receptors, the activation of which can inhibit P38 phosphorylation via PCK and MAPK activation, prevent cell apoptosis, and scavenge free radicals to protect nerve cells Staples et al.
In addition, scientists have recently extracted Rubisco peptides from spinach leaves that have been shown to have significant anti-anxiety effects Kimura et al.
The nervous system is integrated with the entire human body, and plant-derived antioxidant substances are absorbed by the digestive system and then circulated throughout the body.
Therefore, nerve cells in the whole body may be protected. In the nervous system, some nerve cells regulated the immune response and cell repair. Plant-derived antioxidants can protect this part of the nervous system with immune function, thereby increasing its ability to resist damage and repair itself.
Two of the most prevalent cell types in the brain are neurons and glial cells. The primary function of neurons and glial cells is to transmit information and to provide nutrients, respectively. Through co-culture experiments with glial cells and neurons, it was found that glial cells can help neurons resist oxidative stress by secreting antioxidants or helping antioxidant precursors.
Glutathione has important functions in the antioxidant metabolism of the brain, but different cells in the brain have different requirements for glutathione precursors, which provide a defense against oxidation Dringen, Plant nutrients eventually enter the bloodstream through dietary digestion, but due to the presence of the blood—brain barrier, substances in the blood are not fully absorbed and utilized by the brain.
The neuro-glio-vascular unit, which is mainly composed of glial cells, is formed around the blood vessels of the brain; however, connexin Cx channels allow nutrients to enter the brain and leave harmful substances in the blood vessels.
The pathological state of glial cells regulates the blood—brain barrier De Bock et al. Overall, glial cells can play an important role in the recovery of brain function Toledano et al.
Microglia are monocytes that can enter the central nervous system and generally exhibit either the M1 or M2 phenotype. Microglia with the M1 phenotype can show signs of inflammation under specific environments whereas those with the M2 phenotype generally do not.
Microglia have a unique immune function in the brain Tang and Le, by activating synaptic plasticity. Microglia also help remove brain toxins and cellular metabolic waste to maintain the homeostasis of the brain Chen and Trapp, In a study of aging mice, neuronal degeneration was clearly seen as a function of aging Hasegawa-Ishii et al.
Microglial cells can also be activated to clear the accumulated Aβ in the brain Lee and Landreth, , while resveratrol Cai et al.
Recently, it was also found that plant extracts can regulate microglia to express the M2 phenotype more than the M1 phenotype Yang et al. Additionally, oral theaflavin can improve the cognitive behavior of LPS-induced neuroinflammation by inhibiting the activation of M1-type microglia Ano et al.
Curcumin can also protect BV-2 microglia by effectively reducing the index of oxidative stress in glaucoma mice Yue et al.
Furthermore, flavonoids in plants have the ability to regulate microglial activation inhibiting M1-type activation , which allows flavonoids to reduce various inflammatory factors in the brain Spagnuolo et al.
Figure 2. Neuronal protection by the immune nervous system. Schematic of an immune-functioning nervous system that is protecting neurons through the combined action of astrocytes and microglia.
Astrocytes tightly combine with the blood vessels of the brain to form a blood—brain barrier to filter out harmful substances and allow beneficial nutrients to enter the brain. Moreover, astrocytes can secrete glutathione precursors to strengthen the oxidative defense of neurons.
Microglia in this example are depicted as exhibiting the M2 phenotype with immune function rather than the M1 phenotype that can trigger neuroinflammation. M2 microglia can recognize and break down Aβ and inflammatory factors and reduce damage to neurons. Aging is the biggest cause of AD, mainly manifesting as the accumulation of Aβ cell tangles, which eventually lead to memory Crowther and Goedert, ; Selkoe and Hardy, and cognitive decline De-Paula et al.
Microglia play important roles in the immune regulation in the brain, monitoring CNS and inflammatory factors, and clearing Aβ and cell debris Sarlus and Heneka, Antioxidants such as glutathione and vitamin C cooperate with microglia to respond to acute and chronic oxidative stress Freitas et al.
The lack of vitamin B affects the health of the entire nervous system and the gradual degradation of neurons can lead to PD, AD, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Vitamin B deficiency can affect the health of the entire nervous system; AD and PD are caused by the gradual degeneration of nerve cells in the brain and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Freitas et al. The specific combination of folic acid and vitamins B, C, and E as well as others has improved the plasticity of nerve cell synaptic dysfunction Kihara and Shimohama, and has restored the cognitive ability and memory in AD patients in various clinical trials van Wijk et al.
Furthermore, neurotrophic and antioxidant substances in plants have anti-aging effects on the nervous system and promote the functional integrity of nerve cells. On one hand, nutrients and antioxidants can promote and activate immune cells in the nervous system, which can provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and nutrient supply to protect the health of the brain and the integrity of CNS function.
On the other hand, antioxidant substances in plant cells can enter the brain and the whole body through the blood and can play an important role in the enhancement of the antioxidant defense of the whole nervous system. The functional integrity of the nervous system is inseparable from the cooperation of the nerve cells.
Nerve cells each carry out their normal functions and ensure the reasonable operation of the nervous system.
In terms of anti-oxidation, anti-aging, and neuroprotection, plant-derived antioxidants can eliminate free radicals in cells of various parts of the nervous system to achieve neuroprotection. The elimination of free radicals can also activate the immune regulation mechanism in the nervous system to achieve neuroprotection.
In the treatment and prevention of nerve-related diseases, plant-derived antioxidants can affect both nerve cells and the nervous system as a whole. In the process of research and development of plant antioxidants, the effects of nutrients on nerve cells and the nervous system should be more widely linked so that the nutrients in plants are fully developed and utilized.
XC: writing — original draft preparation and software. QL: supervision and data curation. YL: conceptualization, writing — reviewing and editing, and investigation. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
This work was supported by funding from the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province No. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Bakhtiari, M. Ballaz, S. Neurobiology of vitamin C: expanding the focus from antioxidant to endogenous neuromodulator. Baluchnejadmojarad, T. Brain Res. Berger, U. Effect of middle cerebral artery occlusion on mRNA expression for the sodium-coupled vitamin C transporter SVCT2 in rat brain.
Bickford, P. The three most important cell types in the vessel wall are endothelial cells. With continued highly oxidized lipids, blood vessel damage continues during the reaction process and can cause foam cells to form and plaque atherosclerosis symptoms. Oxidized LDL is atherogenic and is thought to be important in the formation of antersclerotic plaques.
Also, oxidized LDL is cytotoxic and can directly damage endothelial cells. Antioxidants such as B-carotene or vitamin E play a vital role in preventing various cardiovascular diseases. This situation becomes more evident in the later stages of the organism. Reactive species produced during oxidative stress are known to cause aging as mentioned above.
Because with aging, there is an increase in the oxidative damage of reactive oxygen species on biomolecules [ 37 , 38 ]. There is an antioxidant defense system against various oxidants that cause oxidative stress in the organism.
This antioxidant defense system; shows its effect by preventing the excessive production of free radicals, reducing the effect of the formed free radicals or reducing or repairing the oxidative damage that occurs.
These systems include endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT and GPX, GSH, metal-binding proteins such as ceruloplasmin and transferrin, some antioxidant elements such as Zn and Cu, and antioxidant vitamins such as A, C, and E [ 7 ]. Aerobic organisms with antioxidant defense systems prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species ROS produced as a result of aerobic respiration and substrate oxidation.
Antioxidants are divided into primary and secondary antioxidants, according to their reaction mechanism. Some antioxidants show more than one mechanism of action and they are called multifunctional antioxidants. Primary antioxidants type-1 or chain-breaking antioxidants are free radical receptors that delay or inhibit the initial stage of autoxidation or interrupt the advanced stage of autoxidation [ 41 ].
In addition to these, primary antioxidants; slow down the rate of new radical generation, initiating new oxidation chains.
They can act by reducing hydroperoxides such as glutathione, peroxidase, catalase or by removing transition metal ion catalysts transferring [ 42 ].
Secondary type-2 or protective antioxidants antioxidants have a wide variety of reaction mechanisms. These antioxidants slow down the oxidation rate but do not convert free radicals into more stable products.
Secondary antioxidants can cheat and deactivate prooxidant metals, decompose hydroperoxides to non-radical species, deactivate singlet oxygen, absorb ultraviolet radiation, or act as deoxidizers. These antioxidants generally increase the activity of primary antioxidants. Citric acid, ascorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, lecithin, tartaric acid, EDTA and β-carotene can be given as examples of secondary antioxidants [ 43 ].
Plants play an important role in human nutrition and life. Many plants, especially the leaves or various parts of which are consumed as vegetables, are also used for therapeutic purposes among people.
As in all countries of the world, medicinally measures of plants are being researched in Turkey and these plants are being developed as a remedy for many diseases. Many antioxidant compounds naturally found in plant sources have been identified as free radicals or active oxygen scavengers [ 44 ].
Attempts have been made to examine the antioxidant potential of a wide variety of vegetables, such as potatoes, spinach, tomatoes, and legumes [ 45 ].
Several reports are showing the antioxidant potential of fruits [ 45 ]. Strong antioxidant activities have been found in strawberries. Cherries, citrus, prunes and olives. Sativum Garlic is found. Indian systems of medicine believe that complex diseases, unlike western ones, can be treated with complex combinations of botanicals with single medicines.
This is why in India whole foods are used as functional foods rather than supplements. Spices such as onions, garlic, mustard, paprika, turmeric, cloves, cinnamon, saffron, curry leaves, fenugreek and ginger are some medicinal plants and dietary components with functional properties.
Some herbs, such as Bixa Orellana , and vegetables such as Emilia, wheatgrass, soybeans, and Garcinia Cambodia have antitumor effects. Other medicinal plants with functional properties include A. marmelos [ 47 ].
Polyphenols are plant metabolites containing various phenol groups. In this group, there are about compounds gathered in 13 classes flavonoids, phenolic acid, anthocyanin, catechins, flavones, flavonol, flavanone, isoflavones, lignans, proanthocyanidin, procyanidin, Resveratrol, tannin.
They are abundant in green tea, grapes, and soy. The most important polyphenol group is phenolic acids. It has anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiviral, anti-aging, anticarcinogen and antioxidant properties. It has been reported to have positive effects on the cardiovascular system [ 48 ].
Some polyphenol hydroxyls are highly reactive: I. Neutralizing free radicals by donating a hydrogen atom or an electron, II. Chelation with metal ions in aqueous solutions, III. It has the properties of binding to proteins and forming precipitation.
Polyphenols can increase the antioxidant activity of oral fluids. It has been reported that tea polyphenols increase the antioxidant capacity of saliva by keeping green or black tea in the mouth for 2—5 minutes25, and consumption of 2 grapefruits per day for 2 weeks increases the phagocytic capacity of gingival sulcus fluid DOS neutrophils has been shown to affect [ 49 ].
Flavonoids belong to the group of Polyphenols. According to their chemical structure, flavonoids are divided into subgroups of flavanones Ex: Luteolin , flavonols Ex: Quercetin, kaempferol , flavanols Ex: Catechin , anthocyanins and isoflavones.
Flavonoids have attracted the attention of researchers because they are free radical scavengers, regulate enzyme activities, inhibit cell proliferation, and act as antibiotics, antiallergic, antidiarrheal, antiulcer and anti-inflammatory drugs.
It has antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial properties. They are found in vegetables, fruits, grains, tea and some spices. It is present in high amounts in citrus fruits, blueberries, blackberries, onions, peppers, tea and parsley [ 50 ]. Antioxidants are mainly represented by vitamin C and polyphenols such as anthocyanins, phenolic acids, flavanols, flavonols and tannins.
These fruits are known as natural antioxidants because of their high antioxidant concentration, berry fruits are increasingly mentioned in the literature as natural functional foods.
The biological value of berries is due to the presence of components such as vitamins, provitamins and related compounds, minerals, phytosterols and phenolic compounds [ 50 ]. The health benefits of these fruits are attributed to their high antioxidant properties and phenolics, which are the main bioactive components of berry fruits [ 50 , 51 ].
Blackberry Rubus sp. Corymbosum , Aronia Aronia melanocarpa , cranberry V. macrocarpon , laurel berry Myrica sp. Ideas , black raspberry R. Occidentalise and strawberry Fragaria ananassa are an important source of bioactive compounds that are generally consumed as fresh or processed products in human nutrition [ 52 , 53 ].
Some Foods Containing Polyphenols; Green Tea has been reported to have protective effects against cancer development and cardiovascular diseases due to its catechin content.
It has been shown that catechins inhibit periodontal pathogens and prevent periodontal tissue destruction [ 54 ]. Contrary to these results; In a study conducted with Korean adults, consumption of less than one cup of green tea per day was associated with a decrease in the prevalence of periodontal disease; It has been reported that consumption of green tea once or more per day increases the prevalence of moderate to severe periodontitis [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ].
Curcumin shows antioxidant properties by reducing the oxidizing effects of free radicals as a result of the interaction of the phenolic and methylone groups in its structure with free radicals [ 59 ].
Curcumin has a scavenging effect on reactive oxygen radicals such as superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, nitric oxide, and peroxynitrite. It can protect lipids, hemoglobin and DNA from oxidative destruction.
It can also play an antioxidant role with its ability to increase the intracellular GSH release and bind to iron. Bakır et.
administered curcumin to rats orally and observed that it increased the intracellular release of GSH, played an antioxidant role with its iron binding capacity, and reduced cellular bone loss [ 60 ].
The antioxidant activities of carotenoids are primarily increased by their conjugated double bond structures that de-localize unpaired electrons. This is related to the ability of α-carotene to physically block singlet oxygen without degradation, and to the chemical reactivity of α-carotene to radicals such as proxy, hydroxyl, and superoxide radicals.
Sufficient concentrations of carotenoids protect lipids from peroxidative damage. In addition, it has antiproliferative effects on cancerous cells.
Foods containing vitamin C include strawberries, papaya, red and green hot peppers, citrus fruits, fresh spices, broccoli, kiwi, melon and cauliflower.
Vitamin C plays an important role in a strong immune system, collagen production, regeneration of skin, cartilage, tendons and blood vessels. Its deficiency increases the risk of various diseases, including serious diseases such as heart diseases, arthritis, and cancer [ 61 ].
Vitamin C cooperates with vitamin E to regenerate α-tocopherol from α-tocopherol radicals found in cell membranes and lipoproteins [ 62 ]. Vegetable oils such as wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, corn and soybean are very rich in vitamin E.
Almond, spinach, chard, kale, ground hot pepper, asparagus, garlic and peanuts contain vitamin E. Vitamin E is a tool in chemical structure.
Different compounds of tools tocopherol and tocotrienol show vitamin E activity. The most active form of vitamin E in humans is α-tocopherol.
Its main antioxidant function is its protective feature from lipid peroxidation. During the antioxidant reaction, αtocopherol is converted to α-tocopherol radical with the transition of the mobile hydrogen atom to the lipid or lipid peroxyl radical. The alpha-tocopherol radical can be reduced to its original form of ascorbic acid.
Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant by disrupting free radical chain reactions [ 63 ]. Some dietary antioxidants are also available as dietary supplements [ 30 , 31 ]. Many plants with antioxidant properties belong to the Labiatae family. The genera belonging to the Labiatae family include plants with important physiological activities antioxidant and antimicrobial especially because they contain terpenic compounds mono-, di-, triterpenes , flavonoids, and phenolic acids [ 64 ].
Colored flavonoids are responsible for the color formation of many fruits and vegetables. However, various colorless flavonoids can also be found in nature. Anthocyanins, which are in the flavonoid subgroup, are pigment substances that give the leaves, flowers and fruits of plants, their characteristic clear blue, red, purple, violet color.
They also contain a group of important antioxidant substances. The findings are showing the in-vitro antioxidant activity of anthocyanins and anthocyanin compounds. In some of the studies, it has been determined that anthocyanins reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer, and have analgesic and antidiabetic effects [ 55 ].
Flavonoids have attracted the attention of researchers because they are free radical scavengers, regulates enzyme activities, act as antibiotics, intelligence, antidiarrheal, antiulcer and anti-inflammatory drugs [ 56 ]. The role of phenolic compounds as antioxidants has enabled natural components containing phenolic compounds to be included in various product formulations and to be widely used in functional food development studies.
Many studies have reported that these compounds reduce blood cholesterol levels, have osteoporosis and anticarcinogenic effects, and have antioxidant activity. There are also opinions that these substances can inhibit unwanted bacterial infections [ 56 ].
It is estimated that there are more than anthocyanins in nature and this number is expected to increase with new studies. These natural compounds are commonly found in the human diet. They are normally observed at concentrations between 0. Due to their pigmentation and structural properties, anthocyanins are also used in industry as natural colorants.
Anthocyanins have been observed to reduce chronic disease risks by enhancing antioxidant defense and modulating antioxidant and inflammatory signaling pathways. In addition, it has been determined that these compounds alleviate oxidative damage and inflammation, repair DNA damage, trigger apoptosis in cancer cells, reduce lipoprotein oxidation, normalize lip profiles, improve vascular endothelial function, decrease platelet reactivity and contribute to the improvement of neurotoxicity.
The richest resources to meet this requirement are flowers and fruits. However, it is found in significant concentrations in the stems, leaves and storage organs [ 58 ].
Colorful fruits such as peaches, strawberries, pomegranates, cherries, plums, and grapes, as well as many dark vegetables black beans, red radishes, red onions, eggplant, red cabbage, purple corn, and purple sweet potatoes , are all rich in anthocyanins [ 58 , 59 ].
These molecules have been found not only in natural sources but also in processed forms in foods and beverages such as red wine, fruit juices, yoghurt and jelly [ 58 , 59 ].
The high content of anthocyanins found in fruits indicates that a daily intake can be achieved with regular consumption of fruits and fruit drinks. Anthocyanins have higher antioxidant capacities AC than other antioxidants with free radical scavenging potential. Anthocyanins have also been observed to reduce the risk of chronic disease by enhancing antioxidant defense and modulating antioxidant and inflammatory signaling pathways [ 61 ].
The beneficial cardiovascular protective effects of polyphenols, including anthocyanins, have been demonstrated in human studies [ 62 ]. Anthocyanins are thought to exert their cardiovascular protective effects through anti-inflammation and antiplatelet activity reported to be mediated by their colonic metabolites [ 61 ].
Various studies suggest that the intake of anthocyanin-rich fruits provides some beneficial effects against age-related neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Studies in animal models have found that the intake of freeze-dried fruits or, anthocyanin fruit extracts plum and blackberry delays the decline of nerve functions and improves cognitive and motor performance [ 62 ].
However, anthocyanins have been shown to alleviate oxidative damage and inflammation [ 63 ], repair DNA damage [ 63 ], trigger apoptosis in cancer cells, reduce lipoprotein oxidation [ 64 ], normalize lip profiles, improve vascular endothelial function, reduce platelet reactivity, as demonstrated in cell and animal studies.
And contribute to the improvement of neurotoxicity [ 64 ]. The anticancer activity of anthocyanins is also demonstrated in different animal models.
Inflammation is a complex biological response to tissue damage, associated with the onset, development and progression of cancer or tumors, provided there is a favorable microenvironment.
Flavonoids have been found to have immunomodulatory properties in vitro. The antioxidant activity of tea, in which anthocyanins have several anti-inflammatory effects, is mainly due to the phenolic substances it contains.
Dillard and German [ 70 ] in a study conducted on men aged 65—84, reported that the average daily flavonoid intake was Trevisanato and Young-In Kim [ 71 ] investigated the relationship between tea consumption and some types of cancer, and in oral cancer: It has been reported that green tea has high antioxidant activity due to the high flavanols it contains, while black tea has high antioxidant activity due to its flavanol content as well as secondary phenolic substances formed in the enzymatic oxidation stage [ 71 ].
Berries are known to contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, organic acids, tannins, anthocyanins and flavonoids. The chemical structure of phenolic compounds is characterized by one or more aromatic rings with hydroxyl groups.
These compounds are classified into 5 main groups according to their structural properties: phenolic acids, Stevens, flavonoids flavonols or catechins, flavonols, flavones, flavonols, isoflavonoids, anthocyanins , tannins and lignans [ 71 ].
It has been tried to be proven by studies that anthocyanin-rich raspberry, strawberry, cherry and blueberry are very effective in preventing the emergence of some diseases that cause premature death such as some types of cancer, vascular and heart diseases [ 72 ].
Blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum Researching ways to lead a healthy life and prevent diseases is one of the most studied research in the medical world. For this reason, the effects of natural vegetables, plants and fruits on the human body are gaining more and more importance every day.
The fact that antioxidant substances taken with plants create a protective shield against the effects of oxygen and other harmful substances entering the body, which causes the cells to deform, increases the interest in such natural products [ 86 ]. The danger of oxidative stress manifests itself when reactive oxygen species damage cellular molecules.
Damage to proteins, lipids, and RNAs is relatively reversible, but damage to DNA can lead to irreversible problems. In addition, many factors such as environmental pollution, radiation, contaminated water, pesticides and oxygen metabolism in living cells inevitably cause the formation of free radicals [ 87 ].
Antioxidants are natural substances found in vegetables and fruits, protecting cells from aging and rusting, preventing cancer and weakening of immunity. The antioxidant capacities of vegetables and fruits vary depending on the amount and type of antioxidant compounds they contain.
Because not all foods contain these compounds in the same amount. Fruits with red-purple content such as strawberries, blueberries, cranberries, raspberries and blackberries contain a significant amount of antioxidants. Tomatoes to be consumed in their season contain high levels of vitamins A, C and folic acid.
In addition, Lycopene, which increases in amount when cooked, is a very powerful antioxidant. Studies have shown that foods with high antioxidant capacity have a high capacity to absorb free oxygen radicals that damage cells and life of man.
Many plants, in particular leaves or various parts that are consumed as vegetables, are also used for therapeutic purposes amongst people.
As in all countries of the world, medical measurements of plants are being researched in Turkey and these plants are under development as a remedy for many diseases [ 88 ]. There is safe data that foods with higher antioxidant capacity, protect cells better and lead to longer and healthier lives.
To protect our health, we should consume plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables in the season, pay attention to the variety of foods and improve our eating habits in the light of healthy eating principles. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.
Edited by Rizwan Ahmad. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Antioxidants from Plant Sources and Free Radicals Written By Nurhayat Atasoy and Ufuk Mercan Yücel.
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IntechOpen Reactive Oxygen Species Edited by Rizwan Ahmad. From the Edited Volume Reactive Oxygen Species Edited by Rizwan Ahmad Book Details Order Print. Chapter metrics overview Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics.
Impact of this chapter. Abstract Today, many factors such as advancing technology, environmental pollution, radiation, contaminated water, pesticides, heavy metals, stress and oxygen metabolism in living cells inevitably cause the formation of free radicals in the human body.
Keywords Oxidative stress free radicals antioxidant vegetables and fruits metabolic activities. Introduction 1. References 1. A well-balanced diet, which includes consuming antioxidants from whole foods, is best.
If you need to take a supplement, seek advice from your doctor or dietitian and choose supplements that contain all nutrients at the recommended levels. Research is divided over whether antioxidant supplements offer the same health benefits as antioxidants in foods.
To achieve a healthy and well-balanced diet , it is recommended we eat a wide variety from the main 5 food groups every day:. To meet your nutritional needs, as a minimum try to consume a serve of fruit and vegetables daily.
Although serving sizes vary depending on gender, age and stage of life, this is roughly a medium-sized piece of fruit or a half-cup of cooked vegetables.
The Australian Dietary Guidelines External Link has more information on recommended servings and portions for specific ages, life stage and gender. It is also thought antioxidants and other protective constituents from vegetables, legumes and fruit need to be consumed regularly from early life to be effective.
See your doctor or dietitian for advice. This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by:. Learn all about alcohol - includes standard drink size, health risks and effects, how to keep track of your drinking, binge drinking, how long it takes to leave the body, tips to lower intake.
A common misconception is that anorexia nervosa only affects young women, but it affects all genders of all ages. Antipsychotic medications work by altering brain chemistry to help reduce psychotic symptoms like hallucinations, delusions and disordered thinking.
No special diet or 'miracle food' can cure arthritis, but some conditions may be helped by avoiding or including certain foods.
Kilojoule labelling is now on the menu of large food chain businesses — both in-store and online. Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional.
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Antioxidants are plnats that normally prevent lipid High-quality thermogenic pills protein oxidation. They play a Boost energy levels role Antiixidants preventing many adverse conditions in the human body, High-quality thermogenic pills inflammation Antiocidants cancer. Synthetic antioxidants are widely used in the food industry to prevent the production of adverse compounds that harm humans. However, plant and animal-based antioxidants are more appealing to consumers than synthetic antioxidants. Plant-based antioxidants are mainly phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamins, while animal-based antioxidants are mainly whole protein or the peptides of meat, fish, egg, milk, and plant proteins. Plant-based antioxidants mainly consist of aromatic rings, while animal-based antioxidants mainly consist of amino acids. Planrs access peer-reviewed chapter. Submitted: 17 July Reviewed: 07 September Published: 22 November com customercare cbspd. Today, Quench your thirst the delicious way Environmental factors and fatigue such as advancing technology, High-quality thermogenic pills pollution, radiation, contaminated water, Antioxidantss, heavy on, stress and oxygen metabolism in living cells inevitably cause the formation of free radicals in the human body. Free radicals are very reactive forms of oxygen that destroy the cells of the organism. This calls for cardiovascular disease, cancer, cataracts, diabetes and many more diseases. To provide solutions to these diseases, firstly, we can eliminate the negative effects of free radicals and prevent the formation of diseases.
Ich tue Abbitte, dass sich eingemischt hat... Ich hier vor kurzem. Aber mir ist dieses Thema sehr nah. Ist fertig, zu helfen.
Es ist die Wahrheit.