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What Are Phytochemicals and Their Benefit In Your Diet Itegrating this advice and eating Plannning variety of colorful plant-based foods is a great way to benefit from substances called phytochemicals, in addition phytichemicals a phytoochemicals of nutrients such as vitamins, Recovery aids for seniors and Integrating phytochemicals into diet planning. Phytochemicals are compounds in plants. These substances are found in plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds and legumes. They give plants their color, flavor and aroma. Much of the current evidence on the benefits of phytochemicals has come from observing people who eat mainly plant-based diets. These people have been shown to have significantly lower rates of certain types of cancers and heart disease.Integrating phytochemicals into diet planning -
Additionally, differences in immune system development, activation, and response to challenge between rodents and humans Mestas and Hughes, will inevitably affect translation of responses to humans.
Another major limitation of animal studies particularly relevant for nutritional research is the difference between humans and rodents in the absorption and metabolism of dietary phytochemicals.
Following ingestion, small animals exhibit more rapid gastric emptying, which affects absorption e. Binding of compounds to components in blood, such as glutathione, also tends to be more efficient in humans compared with other species, meaning there are lower circulating levels of free active unbound phytochemicals able to reach different tissues.
Metabolic degradation also varies between humans and animals. In the liver, where the majority of detoxification occurs, phase 1 cytochrome P enzymes CYPs are responsible for catalyzing the oxidation of organic substances, including ingested food products and drugs, thus facilitating their metabolism and excretion through the subsequent activity of phase 2 detoxification enzymes.
We now know that there are important differences, not only in the amount for CYPs present in different species the CYP2C family is larger and more complex in mice than in humans, whereas CYP3A is the most important of all human CYPs but also in the substrate specificities of some CYPs, such as CYP2A, CYP2B, and CYP2C Martignoni et al.
Metabolic rates between species are also different; for example, small animals clear drugs and chemicals faster than humans, primarily because of faster blood flow and proportionally larger organs Campbell, , which makes identification of the human equivalent dose from an animal study also challenging.
Importantly, most animal experiments involve the use of highly inbred strains of mice, which, due to their genetic homogeneity, are expected to respond similarly when exposed to phytochemicals.
This is a double-edged sword; although mouse models remove the real genetic variation in natural populations, which can confound the results and conclusions of experimental measurements, at the same time they are not representative of the genetic variation exhibited in humans.
Also, rodents will express alleles that are not necessarily the most dominant human equivalents or the exact human functional orthologs. Appropriate models used for nutrition studies include 1 genetically modified mice, through either a disease-driven directed approach, where a known human disease-causing gene is identified and the corresponding gene in the mouse is targeted for genetic modification, or a mutagenesis-driven nondirected approach, where genetic modification in mice leads to a phenotype that resembles human disease Semsarian, ; 2 syngeneic models, where disease is induced mainly by external stimuli such as chemical or surgical intervention; and 3 xenogeneic models, mainly used in cancer prevention studies, where xenografts of human origin are injected into the host either subcutaneously unnatural site or orthotopically primary tumor source site de Jong and Maina, A few examples of animal models used to study the health benefits of phytochemicals are presented below.
Cancer prevention is a favorite target for claims related to the bioactivity of plant-derived products, not least due to the appealing potential that cancer might be prevented by a simple modification of diet without the use of drugs.
An example of mice genetically engineered by a directed approach used for studies on bioactivity of phytochemicals is the prostate-specific PTEN -null mouse model. PTEN deletion in an epithelial stem cell can be an early initiating event leading to prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, a precursor of the disease, and subsequently to cancer in humans Wang et al.
Recently, the dietary isothiocyanate sulforaphane derived from broccoli was shown to suppress transcriptional changes induced by the PTEN deletion in this model as well as inducing additional changes in gene expression in PTEN null tissue, which could partly explain the epidemiological evidence for a reduced risk of prostate cancer in people with high consumption of cruciferous vegetables Traka et al.
Although no histological differences were seen compared with mice on control diet lacking sulforaphane, this could potentially be due to the aggressive nature of disease progression in this model as discussed above.
In TRAMP mice, another well-documented model of prostate disease in which expression of the oncogene SV40 is driven by a prostate-specific promoter, both tomato Pannellini et al. An example of nondirected approach to generate genetically engineered mice used to establish health benefits of phytochemicals is the adenomatous polyposis coli APC min mouse model.
When the diet of APC min mice was supplemented with an anthocyanin-rich red grape extract, the overall adenoma burden was halved and this was associated with reduced Akt expression, an important cell signaling molecule driving cell proliferation Cai et al.
Similarly, green tea polyphenols and epigallocatechingallate decreased tumor incidence and multiplicity in this model significantly and induced molecular events that contributed to cancer prevention Hao et al.
Syngeneic rodent models used extensively for studies on prevention of cancer include 7,dimethylbenz a anthracene DMBA -induced mammary tumors in rats, shown to be reduced by the isoflavones genistein and daidzein Mishra et al.
Xenogeneic models are also used routinely to exhibit growth suppression of human cancer cells in immunodeficient nude mice. Examples include growth suppression of human non-small cell lung cancer cells by grape seed proanthocyanidins Akhtar et al.
This resistance to atherogenesis is likely due to the difference in lipid metabolism of normal rats and mice, which carry the majority of cholesterol in high-density lipoprotein rather than low-density lipoprotein, as do humans Bergen and Mersmann, ; Russell and Proctor, Similar results have been obtained with red wine polyphenols Waddington et al.
Diet supplemented with prebiotic fiber lowered serum cholesterol levels in these rats Parnell and Reimer, Finally, surgically induced myocardial infarction in rats has been used as a syngeneic model for the prevention of CVD.
In this model, curcumin Morimoto et al. Models for metabolic syndrome are increasingly sought after, as this complex cluster of abnormalities that include insulin resistance, visceral adiposity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and endothelial dysfunction, all of which are associated with obesity, is also a risk factor for type 2 diabetes and CVD Huang, , but possibly more amenable to amelioration through dietary change than these more advanced disease states.
There are several animal models of metabolic syndrome relating both to the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome and its associated diseases Kennedy et al. Diet-induced obesity is achieved when otherwise healthy rats and mice are allowed ad libitum access to a high-fat diet, thus developing obesity, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and hypertension Collins et al.
This pathology has been successfully reduced by simultaneous addition in the diet of plant-derived preparations, such as pomegranate seed oil Vroegrijk et al. Leptin is a protein that functions as a hormone regulating feed intake and energy expenditure and is expressed predominantly in adipose tissue.
Green tea Richard et al. Thus, despite many limitations, animal models have been widely used to provide evidence for the health-promoting and disease-preventing activity of a wide range of dietary phytochemicals. However, there is considerable skepticism within the nutrition community of the ability to extrapolate from animal studies to humans, although we consider that they serve an important role to gain insight into underlying mechanisms.
For example, the European Food Safety Authority, which regulates health and function claims associated with either food components or specific foods, does not consider health claims unless they contain evidence from human intervention studies.
Complementing both epidemiological data and the use of animal and cell models, there are data from human intervention studies. These can be loosely grouped into two major classes.
First, there have been a relatively small number of large scale prospective trials with dietary supplements, mainly based upon the antioxidant hypothesis of bioactivity, with primary endpoints of predominantly lung and prostate cancer, and secondary endpoints of cancer at other sites and CVD.
Second, there has been a larger number of shorter term studies that have focused on dietary interventions with supplements, specific foods and diets, and mainly biomarkers of cardiovascular risk as opposed to clinical endpoints.
Design of intervention studies with specific foods or dietary manipulation is complex and challenging. It is not possible to adopt the classic double-blinded randomized control trial design typically used to evaluate pharmaceuticals, and many ethical issues arise if one seeks to modify diet for several weeks.
Indeed, one of the important contributions that plant scientists could make to this field of study is to develop plant genotypes that have contrasting levels of bioactive compounds but are otherwise identical for the use in dietary intervention studies, as reviewed recently by Martin et al.
The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention ATBC Study The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group, and the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy study Omenn et al.
However, as a secondary endpoint, the ATBC study indicated a reduction in risk of prostate cancer with vitamin E. Two other studies of similar design, the Physicians Health Study and the Skin Cancer Prevention Study, involving 22, and volunteers, respectively, did not report any positive or negative effects on lung and skin cancer, although the volunteers in these studies were not of enhanced risk Greenberg et al.
Based upon this study and the secondary results of the ATBC study, a randomized placebo controlled trial of selenium and vitamin E for prostate cancer prevention SELECT was undertaken involving 35, men. After more than 5 years, there was no evidence of any reduction in risk of cancer with the supplements, while the potential risk of type 2 diabetes appeared to be increased Lippman et al.
Thus, several large intervention studies have not provided evidence that dietary antioxidants can reduce incidence of cancer. This may be due to the precise dose and delivery system used for the compound of interest or the nature of the study population, or, maybe, these compounds lack the expected biological activity.
For smaller scale intervention studies, clinical endpoints, particularly with respect to cancer, are very challenging or probably not possible. The majority of studies are focused on assessing the effect of dietary interventions on biomarkers associated with CVD.
These would include both biochemical markers, such as blood lipid profiles, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and physiological biomarkers, such as blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation of blood vessels. A combination of biomarkers can be integrated into overall estimates of cardiovascular risk with the use of widely accepted algorithms British Cardiac Society; British Hypertension Society; Diabetes UK; HEART UK; Primary Care Cardiovascular Society; Stroke Association, While there have been studies that have considered a wide range of foods and their bioactive components, maybe the greatest body of work is concerned with dietary flavonoids.
The diverse range of activity that these compounds exhibit in cell and animal models, combined with epidemiological studies, provide the background evidence to support such studies. A recent meta-analysis of trials with flavonoids and flavonoid-rich foods suggested that foods such as chocolate and green tea and a limited number of soy products, which contain relatively high levels of different flavonoid subclasses, could have a beneficial effect on some CVD biomarkers.
However, this review highlighted the methodological weaknesses that exist in trials reported up to now, such as small size of the majority of studies and poorly reported data from randomized controlled trials, although this should not be interpreted as lack of effectiveness Hooper et al.
In addition to studies with flavonoid-rich foods, similar intervention studies have been undertaken that focus on other classes of natural products.
Foods rich in β-carotene have been used in several studies to investigate how they could be used to alleviate vitamin A deficiency van Jaarsveld et al. There have also been several human intervention studies with cruciferous vegetables to attempt to obtain experimental evidence to support epidemiological data for the health promoting effects of these vegetables Kensler et al.
Systematic reviews of human intervention studies that have involved both carotenoid-rich and glucosinolate-rich foods, as have been done for flavonoid-rich foods Hooper et al.
Human studies also cast doubt on the antioxidant theory of biological activity of dietary phytochemicals. As commented above, human metabolism of phytochemicals can reduce greatly their antioxidant capacity as shown within in vitro cell studies. Several studies have also attempted to demonstrate that a polyphenol-rich diet results in an increase in plasma antioxidant capacity, but few, if any, have demonstrated a significant increase.
This is due to two main factors: First, the endogenous phenolic, α-tocopherol, and ascorbate concentrations in the plasma range between and μM Clifford, Moreover, these additional marginal increases are transient, and it is difficult to envisage how these changes might have a significant impact upon health.
However, it is conceivable that in certain elderly populations in which the plasma ascorbate levels can become depleted, heavy consumption of tea and coffee may have a significant effect on plasma antioxidant activity.
A more detailed critique of the biological relevance of direct antioxidant effects of polyphenols has recently been published Hollman et al. The biological activity of carotenoids is frequently attributed to their lipophilic antioxidant effects observed in cell and animal systems.
Whether this is their main mode of action following normal dietary consumption within humans still remains to be elucidated. It now seems more likely that phytochemicals may have health-promoting effects through more complex changes on cell signaling pathways leading to, for example, changes in expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines that can influence the risk of chronic disease, as is evident through research with model systems Youn et al.
While there are both biochemical and physiological biomarkers associated with risk of CVD that represent useful endpoints for dietary intervention studies, the same is not true for other forms of chronic disease, and this is a major limitation in the design of human intervention studies.
It is inconceivable that it is possible to obtain data on the effects of a dietary intervention on primary cancer risk, as opposed to the use of supplements as described above, due to the required size of the studies to obtain appropriate power, their duration, and ethical issues concerned with altering diet, such as the complete removal of a certain food group from the control arm of the study.
It is possible that dietary intervention studies could be adopted to assess the risk of reoccurrence of some cancers, such as bladder cancer and some forms of breast cancer that have relatively high reoccurrence rates.
A similar strategy could be used to look at incidence of reoccurrence of other chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease after periods of remission. While various biomarkers associated with CVD are accepted by the clinical community, there has been very little progress in identifying robust biomarkers for risk of other forms of chronic disease, such as cancer and cognitive decline.
Biomarker development, either in the form of single biochemical traits or, for example, more complex metabolomic fingerprints of plasma and urine Legido-Quigley et al.
While many dietary phytochemicals may have positive effects upon health, there may also be negative effects. For example, the furancoumarin begamottin that is found in grapefruit is an inhibitor of certain cytochrome Ps, including CYP34A, which, in turn prevents the metabolism of statins that subsequently accumulate in the bloodstream and have detrimental effects Girennavar et al.
Dietary polyphenols may also have negative effects on absorption of micronutrients. For example, phenolic compounds in the diet may complex with non-haem iron within the intestinal lumen making it unavailable for absorption.
Thus, care should be taken when advocating a polyphenol-rich diet to certain sectors of the population, such as young women, who are frequently deficient in iron Hurrell et al.
Health claims for foods that may have modified levels of phytochemicals are regulated in the U. by the FDA and in Europe by the European Food Safety Authority EFSA. The FDA's Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 section Health claims for specific food components or proprietary products are submitted by the national government to EFSA who uses set criteria to assess the scientific validity of claims.
Evidence of health benefits has to be derived from human intervention studies, while data from animal studies are used to provide evidence of the underlying mechanisms Figure 2.
Main Issues Addressed by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies in the Evaluation of Health Claims. What then should be the targets for the plant science community?
One of the most valuable contributions will be the development of near isogenic genotypes of common foods that vary in specific phytochemicals that can be used within human intervention studies to ask specific questions concerning biological activity of different phytochemicals when provided not as supplements but within a common chemical and physical food matrix.
This system has the advantages of targeting phytochemicals for which there is considerable circumstantial evidence for health benefits within a tractable system that is appropriate for human studies in contrast with the use of other plant model systems.
While there has been some experimentation of these types of materials with animal models, the use of these in short- and long-term intervention trials with humans will potentially make a major contribution to our understanding of the dietary role of these compounds in a manner that is not feasible through further epidemiological and animal studies.
Again, as with tomatoes and flavonoids, the development of a range of genotypes of a single species with contrasting carotenoid profiles would be of immense value to the nutrition research community, although the technological challenges in manipulating carotenoid biosynthesis may be considerable Fraser et al.
Sulfur-containing secondary metabolites are also appealing targets for manipulation. Evidence for the cancer-protecting effects of cruciferous vegetables remains strong Kirsh et al. To what extent this effect is mediated by glucosinolates and their degradation products remains to be resolved.
The biochemical genetics of glucosinolate biosynthesis and accumulation has been thoroughly explored in Arabidopsis Sønderby et al. Although marker-assisted selection approaches have been used to develop broccoli varieties with contrasting levels of glucosinolates Mithen et al.
Likewise, sulfur compounds in Allium crops, such as onions and garlic, have been associated with health benefits Griffiths et al. The main focus of these compounds among breeding companies has been to develop cultivars with milder flavors partly through reducing the levels of certain volatile compounds, but similar approaches could be adapted specifically for exploring in a rigorous manner the health promoting activity of certain secondary metabolites which may not necessarily contribute to flavor.
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Phytonutrients are components of plants, fruits, veggies, grains, herbs, spices, nuts, and even teas that can have a beneficial effect on promoting overall health.
These bioactive compounds are found in fruits, grains, vegetables, and tea. Some polyphenols are more popular than others, like the quercetin in apples, resveratrol in grapes or Epigallocatechin gallate ECGG , and catechins in green tea.
However, many other foods can be added to the Phytonutrient Spectrum Meal Plan , such as berries, pomegranates, soybeans, olives, cocoa, onion, garlic, leeks, tomatoes, carrots, sweet potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables that are brightly colored especially red and orange. Also, don't forget about cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, and kale 7.
Researchers have identified about 10, different phytochemicals or bioactive compounds found in fruits, grains, vegetables, tea, coffee, and even wine however, the amount in wine is negligible.
Based on their chemical structure, phytochemicals can be broken into the following groups 4 :. Berries, red wine, pomegranates, soybeans, and olives are rich in Anthocyanins and have been found to increase Natural Killer NK cells, decrease aortic systolic blood pressure, and reduce diastolic blood pressure and arterial stiffness.
Grapes, apples, and cocoa are rich in Proanthocyanidins and have been found to increase endothelial function vascular tone and blood flow , decrease LDL oxidation, and reduce blood pressure 4. Onion, garlic, leeks, and olives are rich in sulfides sulfur and have been shown to support cardiovascular health and detoxification, antioxidant properties, and modulate inflammatory pathways.
Tomatoes, carrots, sweet potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables that are brightly colored think red and orange are rich in Carotenoids and support cardiovascular health, antioxidant support, and suppression of Reactive Oxygen Species ROS to reduce CVD risk 4.
Apples, onions, and citrus fruits are rich in Quercetin and have been shown to result in a reduction in blood pressure, a decrease in LDL oxidation, and a decrease in inflammation. If you have ever heard the saying " eat the rainbow," this would be an excellent time to incorporate more colors from a phytonutrient-rich diet.
Phytonutrients come in various colors, such as green, yellow-orange, blue-purple, white, and red; the goal is to get one to two of each color daily on your plate and into your body. Orange, red, and yellow foods such as bell peppers, cherries, cranberries, squash, turmeric, carrots, bananas, pineapple, and cantaloupe provide vitamins A and C and possess immune health properties, as well as anti-bacterial and cellular protection.
These orange and yellow foods also can support skin, vascular, and eye health. These yellow, red, and orange foods are rich in beta-carotene, anthocyanins, quercetin, and lycopene 8 , 9 , Blue and purple foods such as berries, cabbage, eggplants, figs, grapes, olives, prunes, and potatoes can support liver and heart health, as they are rich in anthocyanins, resveratrol, and glucosinolates.
They can also support healthy inflammatory pathways in the body, cardiovascular health, and cognitive health 8 , 9 , Green foods think all different kinds of lettuce, cucumbers, broccoli, avocado, artichoke, asparagus, edamame, zucchini, olive, and pears are rich in Chlorophyll, catechins, isothiocyanates, phenols, and tannins.
These plant compounds have been shown to provide anti-inflammatory benefits, cell protection, and support skin, heart, and liver health 8 , 9 , Green foods are particularly rich in glucosinolates, which can support liver health and detoxification.
Anyone looking to increase their consumption of fruits and vegetables, increase their antioxidant intake, or work on creating a more balanced diet would benefit from this way of eating. Because phytonutrients are so beneficial for those concerned with cardiovascular and immune health, neurodegenerative diseases, or certain cancers, individuals with those health issues should consider this diet 1 , 2.
If you are trying to figure out if the Phytonutrient Spectrum Food Plan is right for you, then starting with some functional labs to assess your current nutritional status would be suggested.
This test provides a comprehensive nutritional analysis by measuring functional deficiencies at the cellular level. The Organic Acids Test can help provide a comprehensive metabolic analysis of a patient's overall health, including intestinal yeast and bacteria, vitamin and mineral levels, oxidative stress, neurotransmitter levels, and oxalates.
Measuring organic acids provides a functional assessment of an individual's nutrient status. The GI-MAP test is excellent for detecting microbial imbalances. It can look at microbes contributing to illness and includes key markers related to digestion, absorption, inflammation, and immune function.
Researchers have identified 25, phytonutrient phytochemicals or bioactive compounds found in fruits, grains, vegetables, and popular beverages such as tea and coffee. They have been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulating, cardiovascular, and neuroprotective benefits. There are several functional labs that you can run to assess your nutrient status to see if incorporating the Phytonutrient Spectrum Food Plan is beneficial for your health journey.
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Address correspondence Periodization for athletes richard. Integrating phytochemicals into diet planning phtochemicals. Some figures in this article are displayed in Appetite control supplements ;hytochemicals but phytochemicala black and white in the print edition. Maria H. Traka, Richard F. The rise in noncommunicable chronic diseases associated with changing diet and lifestyles throughout the world is a major challenge for society. It is possible that certain dietary components within plants have roles both in reducing the incidence and progression of these diseases.
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