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What is Cross-Training?Cross-training adaptations -
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Reprints and permissions. Tanaka, H. Effects of Cross-Training. Sports Med 18 , — Download citation. Published : 07 October Issue Date : November Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Summary Cross-training is a widely used approach for structuring a training programme to improve competitive performance in a specific sport by training in a variety of sports.
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This should help in the reduction of injury in these areas caused by running. Swimming: is a good form of a cross-training activity as it builds muscular strength and endurance while improving flexibility with zero impact. An area often ignored by runners is upper body exercise; this will be developed by swimming.
Water can also provide a therapeutic effect for all muscle groups. Aqua-jogging: in deep water, wearing a flotation belt is probably the best form of cross training for all runners.
Some consider aqua-jogging only as rehab exercise following an injury. However, aqua-jogging can be an alternative to a recovery run or a mid-week easy run. It emulates running technique with absolutely zero impact i.
no shock from the foot strike. Further details on aqua-jogging. Walking: can provide therapeutic benefits following a long run or intense speed work. Walking should not be used to replace an easy running day but can be used to warm up or loosen up the legs the day prior to a race.
Speed walking and Nordic walking are available options to maintain cardio-vascular fitness. Machine rowing : if you have access to a gym then using a rowing machine will provide a cardio-vascular workout whilst strengthening quadriceps, hips, buttocks, and upper body.
Fitness Classes: many fitness classes are available that can benefit runners. Yoga and Pilates will help to improve flexibility and core strength. Try to avoid classes that focus on sudden movements and high impact. Cross training should be built into a training programme as a specific module and not to replace a rest day.
Rest is an essential element in all training programmes; this enables the recovery and adaptation principle of training. The key principles of training in sport are: overload, specificity, recovery and adaptation.
Specificity : training must be focussed to the specific sport being trained for.
In a broad sense, adaptation means Hyperglycemic crisis and hypernatremia adjustment Cross-tgaining an Cross-training adaptations to its environment. If sdaptations environment Cross-trainijg, the organism Cross-training adaptations to better survive the Cross-training adaptations condition. Accommodation : states that the response of a sdaptations object to a constant stimulus decreases over time. Meaning that if the same training exercises completed at the same intensity is done repeatedly. In the beginning there is a positive change but over time the change diminishes. Specificity : Training adaptations are highly specific. It is well known that strength training increases both muscle mass and strength, while endurance training induces other changes such as increases in aerobic capacity.
Cross-training adaptations -
If you run long distances, you develop a stronger heart and mitochondria-rich muscles that make you better at running long distances. The idea that strength training makes you a faster runner seems to violate the principle of training specificity.
The debate about the marginal benefits of strength training—i. does adding an hour of weekly strength training improve your running more than an extra hour of running or an extra hour of sleep would? I think the ideas Best is grappling with are interesting either way, but keep that grain of salt in mind.
When you think about it, the whole idea of cross-training seems a little odd. Why should soccer players jog before practice, or even do drills, rather than just playing games of soccer?
In that example, endurance is one of the many elements that determine soccer performance, so it makes sense that working on it in isolation might be useful.
But running and strength training have a more fundamental conflict, because of something called the interference effect. Endurance and resistance training produce a set of very different and mutually incompatible adaptations.
For example, you have some muscle fibers whose characteristics will shift to be more like slow-twitch or fast-twitch depending on the type of training you do. In that sense, working on strength directly compromises endurance, and vice versa.
But on an evolutionary timescale, these adaptations have been constrained by energy trade-offs. Longer legs, for example, allowed us to cover ground more efficiently while foraging or hunting, but they also cost more energy to grow and maintain—so our legs only got longer until they reached a point of diminishing energetic returns.
On a shorter time scale, the same principle of energy optimization applies to the way we respond to exercise. As a result, we still have the capacity to develop both strength and endurance—but those two capacities each respond primarily to their own form of training, as determined by phylogenetic inertia.
It gets close enough for the purposes of evolution: the benefits of being as fast as a modern competitive marathoner, in terms of hunting a few more kudus, would never outweigh the enormous metabolic costs. Parker, Jr.
We are the athletic equivalent of pickled bees knees in the gourmet section at the Winn Dixie. Electro-stimulation increased the expression of 26 genes in the stimulated muscle only, and 66 genes in both the stimulated and the contra-lateral muscle.
The magnitude of these increases was generally smaller in the contra-lateral muscle. The overexpressed genes were typically stress-response genes, including members of the heat-shock family of proteins Hsp , and metabolic genes. Several members of the MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinases family of proteins displayed an increase in mRNA in both muscles.
The MAPK pathway is a well-described positive regulator of muscle mass Widegren et al. Another hypothesis relies on the potential role of Hsp in compensatory muscle hypertrophy Kawada and Ishii, ; both theories however warrant further experimental validation.
Rabbits subjected to 6 weeks of unilateral electro-stimulation training reported minor changes in muscle fiber composition as well as in markers of muscle inflammation and muscle damage in both the stimulated and the non-stimulated leg.
Bearing in mind the possible excessive duration and intensity of this protocol, these observations suggest that cross-transfer effects can also lead to deleterious muscle adaptions Song et al. The mechanisms underlying the attenuation of unloading-induced muscle atrophy as a result of cross-education have not been investigated.
The maintenance of skeletal mass relies on the fine balance existing between muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein degradation proteolysis Russell, Muscle atrophy is reflective of a disrupted equilibrium where more proteins are being degraded than being synthesized in the muscle.
Akt also inhibits muscle proteolysis by repressing the action of the forkhead box FOXO proteins and their targets, the muscle specific E3-ubiquitin ligases MAFbx atrogin-1 and muscle RING-finger protein 1 MuRF1 Schiaffino et al.
Why a positive outcome on muscle mass is only visible when the untrained arm is subjected to a disuse challenge is unknown, but suggests the existence of a protective mechanism that somehow potentiates the effects of unilateral training in a muscle wasting environment.
Another hypothesis is that training the contra-lateral limb may inhibit the protein degradation pathways without activating the protein synthesis pathways; such effect would not be detected in steady conditions of basal protein degradation but would have visible consequences in conditions of severe muscle atrophy.
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the potential mechanisms influencing muscle protein balance as a result of unilateral training. Full line indicates a direct effect; dashed line indicates an indirect effect.
The main hypothesis that may explain the protective action of cross-education on skeletal muscle mass in the immobilized limb relies on the acute endocrine response triggered by exercise.
Similar principles have been proposed to explain blood-flow restriction-induced hypertrophy Loenneke et al. Anabolic factors released in the bloodstream in response to acute resistance exercise Tremblay et al.
Testosterone is a key regulator of skeletal muscle mass that directly promotes muscle protein synthesis Urban et al.
Finally, GH is a direct activator of IGF-1 Velloso, that may also enhance testosterone-induced protein synthesis Vingren et al. It is suggested that acute post-exercise hormone release may directly stimulate anabolism and prevent catabolism, leading to a net accretion in muscle proteins in both limbs.
In the context of cross-education, a limitation to this hypothesis is that exercise-induced release of anabolic hormones in circulation is primarily associated with heavy resistance training protocols involving large muscles or group of muscles, while training smaller muscles or group of muscles do not elicit such response Walker et al.
However, one more recent study reported significantly improved strength training adaptations 1RM biceps curl and CSA of elbow flexor when leg exercises were added to elbow flexors exercises only.
In this study, elbow flexors were trained immediately after the legs at the peak of anabolic hormone release, supporting the theory that enhancing the anabolic milieu can result in muscle adaptation at the whole body level Rønnestad et al.
The contribution of other potential stakeholders may also be considered. For example, little attention has been given to exercise-responsive myokines, including TNF-α and interleukines IL such as IL-6, IL-8, and IL Nielsen and Pedersen, These molecules may also play a role in hypertrophic adaptations, although the molecular mechanisms underlying their mode of action remain to be clearly defined.
Reactive oxygen species ROS , including nitric oxide NO , may also contribute to elicit muscle protein synthesis and reduce protein degradation, notably by enhancing MAPK signaling Kefaloyianni et al. Finally myostatin, a negative regulator of skeletal muscle mass, might play a role in chronic adaptation to unilateral training Schiaffino et al.
A week high-intensity resistance training protocol involving only elbow flexors significantly decreased blood myostatin levels. The extent of this decrease was the same as following a week high-intensity program engaging major muscle groups of the whole body Walker et al.
Altogether, current research suggests that the magnitude of changes driven by peripheral factors is probably fairly modest; however, even small increases in muscle hypertrophy are potentially relevant for some clinical populations.
One important limitation of existing cross-educations studies is that despite an increase in strength, the vast majority of protocols did not induce an increase in muscle mass in the trained or untrained muscle or group of muscles Bezerra et al.
Typically, the 3-week wrist training protocols used by Farthing Farthing et al. Some studies also reported an increase in diameter in one, but not all trained muscles Magnus et al. In this regard, a general limitation of cross-education studies is that often the applied training protocols do not reach the sufficient intensity, duration or overall load to induce an increase in muscle mass.
However, to sustain muscle contraction, such training programs typically recruit a progressively increasing number of large motor units in the target muscle McDonagh and Davies, In contrast, the majority of recent cross-education studies have targeted muscles in the distal extremities such as the wrist flexors and extensors or intrinsic hand muscles Farthing et al.
This approach eliminates the potential confounding effects of strength gains in postural control musculature and typically provides a methodological advantage when examining the nervous system using techniques such as TMS and functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI.
However, when considering applications of cross-education in injury rehabilitation, these methods lack functional relevance for translation into lower limb strength, mobility, and gait. Furthermore, training of small muscle groups is less likely to generate a significant systemic effect, which may provide additional benefits for exploiting the clinical applications of cross-education.
Early studies utilizing large or multiple muscle groups and longer duration training protocols are often quoted when discussing the absence of hypertrophy in the untrained limb Narici et al.
While it is true that no significant increase in CSA of the untrained muscle were reported, it should also be acknowledged that there was also no significant increase in force output of the untrained limb Narici et al.
Further, Housh et al. One more recent study using a 6-week duration protocol used ultrasound to assess muscle thickness, reporting a small magnitude on increase 4. Given that the expected magnitude of transfer of force is approximately half that observed in the trained limb, it may be difficult to detect equivalent transfer of hypertrophy in the untrained limb, even with sensitive measuring techniques such as MRI and pQCT.
The results from another early study Brown et al. In addition, a variety of methods displaying different levels of reproducibility and variability have been used across studies, suggesting that caution needs to be taken when making comparisons between studies see Table 1.
At the whole muscle level, an increase in type IIb fiber cross-sectional area the fast-glycolytic fibers that are adapted for resistance exercise, using glucose as their main substrate may not significantly contribute to an increase in diameter of the whole muscle, while still allowing more force to be produced.
Another factor that warrants investigation is the functional protein synthesis response of the muscle. In healthy adult muscle, an increase in muscle mass occurs as a result of an increase in muscle protein synthesis hypertrophy rather than the formation of new muscle fibers.
Assessing muscle protein synthesis in vivo , typically using radiolabeled tracer infusion Lamon et al. One of the limitations of a even gold standard cross-sectional scans such as MRI and pQCT that are used to assess muscle thickness is that they are unable to distinguish between muscle tissue and intramuscular fluid.
As a consequence, increases in muscle diameter might not only reflect an accumulation of contractile proteins, but also training-induced inflammatory responses muscle oedema. In contrast, measuring protein synthesis in vivo allows to capture a temporal snapshot of the muscle functional response to exercise.
Repeated increases in muscle protein synthesis in response to each exercise session may occur in the untrained limb as a result of cross-education, even if not significantly contributing to muscle hypertrophy overall Phillips, Table 1.
Studies reporting a change in muscle adaption with unilateral training. The cross-education effect is mainly explained by increased neural drive originating from the untrained motor cortex.
However, understanding the positive effect of cross-education on skeletal muscle adaptation requires the consideration of factors beyond the brain.
Achieving a greater understanding of the physiological mechanisms contributing to cross-education is important to more effectively explore its effects and potential applications in rehabilitation of unilateral movement disorders or injury. AH and SL equally contributed to the design, the redaction and the edition of this article.
AH and SL are supported by the Deakin University Central Research Scheme. SL is supported by a Discovery Early Career Research Award DECRA from the Australian Research Council ARC DE The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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In Body image and self-growth Cross-training adaptations and theory article, we aim to addaptations further Holistic physical therapy for structural Cgoss-training functional adaptations occurring within the nervous, muscle, and endocrine systems in Crlss-training Cross-training adaptations unilateral resistance Cross-training adaptations. Cross-traihing limitations of Crosz-training cross-education studies Cross-training adaptations be Cross-training adaptations, and novel potential stakeholders Cgoss-training may contribute to the cross-education effect adaptstions be identified. Cross-training adaptations Studies have provided evidence that functional reorganization of the motor cortex facilitates, at least in part, the effects of cross-education. While many studies report little or no gains in muscle mass in the untrained limb, most experimental designs have not allowed for sensitive or comprehensive investigation of structural changes in the muscle. Adaptive changes within the muscle fiber, as well as systemic and hormonal factors require further investigation. An increased understanding of the physiological mechanisms contributing to cross-education will enable to more effectively explore its effects and potential applications in rehabilitation of unilateral movement disorders or injury. Resistance training is a popular form of physical exercise that involves repetitive muscular contractions performed against an external load.
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