Zhu, Y. There was improved discrimination in Anthocyaninss memory for the blueberry regukation group at weeks, indicating improved resistance to interference of extraneous material in memory; however, this benefit was not maintained at week Nutritional Neuroscience, 22 8 ,

Anthocyanins and mood regulation -

The MYB-bHLH-WD40 MBW complex activates the expression of LBGs. TCP3 activator is indicated in violet, whereas MYBL2 and SPL9 repressors are indicated in light blue. Arrows, positive regulation; blunt ends, negative regulation; dashed arrow, translation. Significant progress in understanding the negative regulators controlling flavonoid biosynthesis has been made Li, ; Xu et al.

The bHLH-1 proteins regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis, whereas in many plants the bHLH-2 proteins, besides being essential for anthocyanin biosynthesis Albert et al. In maize, the IN1 gene inhibits the anthocyanin pathway, possibly by interfering with R1 binding in the MBW complex, since IN1 does not appear to control the transcript level of the B1 and C1 genes Carey et al.

In dicots, the first negative R2R3-MYB regulators identified, AmMYB and AmMYB from Antirrhinum majus , reduced anthocyanin biosynthesis when overexpressed in tobacco flowers Tamagnone et al. Both contain an ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR ERF -associated amphiphilic repression EAR motif in the C-terminal domain and belong to subgroup 4, where many other plant R2R3-MYB repressors are included Dubos et al.

In addition to R2R3-MYB repressors, in Arabidopsis two types of R3-MYB repressors, MYBL2 and CAPRICE CPC , have been identified. MYBL2 is an R3-MYB repressor derived from subgroup 4 R2R3-MYBs after a partial loss of the R2 domain and characterized by an R3 domain including the bHLH interacting motif and a C-terminal domain containing an EAR motif and a TLLLFR repression motif Dubos et al.

Conversely, CPC consists of a short protein, containing the highly conserved bHLH-interacting motif, but no repressor domains, and belongs to a distinct clade that emerged before the divergence between monocots and dicots Albert et al. Specifically, CPC is known to regulate root hair differentiation, trichome initiation, and stomatal formation Wada et al.

These two types of R3-MYB repressors are characterized by two different mechanisms of action: CPC only exerts passive repression by titrating the bHLH partners from the MBW complex Zhu et al.

In addition, MYBL2 represses the expression level of MYB and bHLH regulatory genes in seedlings e. MYBL2 also appears to mediate the response to environmental stresses and hormones. MYBL2 response to light depends on HY5 and occurs via three different mechanisms Figure 3E.

First, MYB-like Domain transcription factor MYBD , which is induced in response to light and is a target gene of HY5, is a direct transcriptional repressor of MYBL2, able to reduce the acetylation of lysine 9 of histone 3 H3K9 in MYBL2 promoter Nguyen et al.

Second, HY5 is also able to directly bind the MYBL2 promoter and to repress its expression through an epigenetic mechanism, consisting of increased levels of H3K9 acetylation and H3K4 trimethylation at HY5 binding sites Wang et al. Third, HY5 directly activates miRa , which then inhibits MYBL2 by translational repression Wang et al.

An additional level of epigenetic regulation involves the enrichment of the histone 2 variant H2A. Z in the promoter of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in normal conditions as well as in high light and drought, in order to reduce an excessive anthocyanin accumulation.

Z inhibits the expression of biosynthetic genes by reducing the accessibility and the H3K4 trimethylation around the transcription start site of genes Cai et al. Besides MYBL2, other transcription factors acting as repressors of anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to hormonal stimuli have been identified, including the JASMONATE ZIM-DOMAIN JAZ proteins Qi et al.

Despite their interactions with different proteins of the MBW complex, they share similar repressor mechanisms through ubiquitination and degradation by the 26S proteasome.

JAZ proteins, which are the master regulators of jasmonic acid JA signaling, negatively regulate anthocyanin accumulation by interacting with bHLHs and R2R3-MYBs and disrupting the MBW complex Figure 3C. Upon JA signaling, JAZ proteins are degraded through ubiquitination and degradation by the 26S proteasome and the reconstituted MBW complex activate anthocyanin biosynthesis Qi et al.

MYBL2 and JAZ proteins were also found to mediate gibberellic acid GA -inhibited anthocyanin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis Xie et al. In the absence of GA, DELLA proteins, which are known repressors of GA signaling, are degraded Jiang et al.

Possibly, a similar mechanism involves DELLA, MYBL2, and JAZs in response to abiotic stress-induced anthocyanin biosynthesis Xie et al. Phosphate starvation and sucrose were also shown to reduce the concentration of GA or to specifically inhibit the GA-dependent degradation of DELLA proteins respectively, thus inducing anthocyanin accumulation in Arabidopsis Hsieh et al.

Similar to JAZ proteins, SPL9 acts as negative regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis by interacting with R2R3-MYBs PAP1 and MYB and disrupting the formation of the MBW complex with TT8 Figure 3D ; Gou et al. Curiously, brassinosteroids BR negatively regulate the JA-induced anthocyanin accumulation by reducing the expression of PAP1 , PAP2 , and GL3 Peng et al.

Whether this suppression is mediated by JAZ proteins or by MYBL2, which has been found to participate in the down-regulation of BR-repressed genes, is presently unknown Ye et al.

Furthermore, ethylene inhibits anthocyanin accumulation induced by sucrose and light by suppressing the expression of transcription factors that positively regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis, including GL3 , TT8 , and PAP1 , while activating the negative regulator MYBL2 Jeong et al.

A NAC-type transcription factor ANAC has been proposed as an indirect negative regulator of the expression of LBGs i. Furthermore, three members of the LATERAL ORGAN BOUNDARY DOMAIN LBD protein family LBD37, 38, and 39 are strongly induced by nitrogen and function as transcriptional repressor of PAP1 and PAP2 , thereby suppressing anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to nitrogen Zhou et al.

Very recently, it has been highlighted the signaling pathway of strigolactones, which are carotenoid-derived hormones known to increase anthocyanin biosynthesis Wang et al. More specifically, strigolactones trigger ubiquitination and degradation of SMAX-like 6 from Arabidopsis AtSMXL6 , a repressor interacting with PAP1, which is then released and allowed to activate anthocyanin biosynthesis Wang et al.

Overall, the negative regulators mediating hormonal and environmental response i. MYBL2 represents an exception, since it also actively represses transcription as part of the MBW complex Figure 3B. Finally, some post-translational modifications of MBW proteins have been identified that negatively modulate the activity of MBW complexes.

A recent study has revealed that MAP-Kinase 4 MAPK4 phosphorylation of PAP1 also increases its stability and is essential for light-induced anthocyanin accumulation Li et al. Transcription factors orthologous to the MBW complex of maize and Arabidopsis have been isolated in cereals and many fruits and vegetables, including grape, apple, kiwi, pear, peach and strawberry, with grape, apple, and tomato being the best studied in terms of mechanism of regulation of anthocyanin synthesis Petroni and Tonelli, ; Jaakola, ; Chaves-Silva et al.

Despite the fact that the MBW is highly conserved in fruits Figure 2D , some R2R3-MYBs , such as VvMYBF1 in grapevine and SlMYB12 in tomato, are known that control the flavonol synthesis without a bHLH partner and are activators of EBGs Czemmel et al. In rice, the Purple leaf Pl complex locus, including the bHLH OsB1 and OsB2 genes, was proposed to control the anthocyanin biosynthesis in rice leaves Sakamoto et al.

However, recent studies determined that the predominant MBW complex activating anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple-leaf rice includes the R2R3-MYB OsC1, the bHLH OsRb, and the WD40 OsPAC1, which contributes to the full activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis, similar to the maize PAC1 gene Figure 2D.

Consistent with this, OsRb was found to be much higher expressed in leaves compared to OsB1 and OsB2 , whose expression level was extremely low Zheng et al.

Instead, OsB2 and OsC1 also named Kala4 and Kala3 , respectively have a predominant role in anthocyanin pigmentation of rice pericarp in black-grained rice Maeda et al. Another R2R3-MYB gene, OsP1 , closely related to the maize P1 and the Arabidopsis MYB11 , MYB12 , and MYB , was recently identified in rice.

Similar to maize, OsP1 specifically activates a subset of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes i. In other cereals, such as wheat, only the Pp Purple pericarp gene controlling anthocyanin pigmentation in seeds has been identified so far McIntosh et al.

In grapevine, a complex locus with two MYB genes VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 , homologs of Arabidopsis PAP1 , PAP2 , MYB , and MYB is specifically expressed in ripening berries, where it promotes the synthesis of tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins i.

In addition, VvMYBA1 in fruits and VvMYBA6-A7 in both plantlets and fruits were found to be responsive to UV-B in an HY5-dependent manner, similar to PAP1 in Arabidopsis Matus et al. The existence of an MBW complex is suggested by the identification of VvWDR1 as an activator of anthocyanin synthesis when overexpressed in Arabidopsis Matus et al.

Similar to TT8 in Arabidopsis, VvMYC1 is involved in a positive feedback regulation of its own expression Hichri et al. A retrotransposon insertion in the promoter of VvMYBA1 Kobayashi et al.

In apple, allelic homologs of R2R3-MYBs are responsible for the light-dependent anthocyanin pigmentation of red-skin apple cultivars i. On the other hand, the MdMYB10 expression results from an autoregulatory loop mediated by five tandem repeats of an MdMYB10 binding motif in its promoter Espley et al.

Other R2R3-MYBs activating anthocyanins are MdMYB3 Vimolmangkang et al. In apple, the MBW complex includes two bHLHs, MdbHLH3 and MdbHLH33, interacting with MdMYB1, MdMYB9, MdMYB10, and MdMYB11 Espley et al.

Interestingly, the apple R2R3-MYBs appear to regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to low temperature and plant hormones through transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms similar to those highlighted in Arabidopsis. Upon exposure to low temperature, MdbHLH3 is transcriptionally activated and, once translated, the MdbHLH3 protein is phosphorylated to further enhance its transcription activation of MdMYB1, and form with it the MBW complex able to activate the genes of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway Xie et al.

On the other hand, MdbHLH3 protein was found to be sequestered by JAZ proteins, which are then degraded following JA exposure, allowing MdbHLH3 to act as direct activator of MdMYB9 and MdMYB11 and to form with them an MBW complex for activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis An et al.

Similarly, MdMYB10 is sequestered by the auxin-responsive factor MdARF13, which destabilizes the MBW complex and indirectly inhibits the anthocyanin biosynthesis, but it is also able to directly repress anthocyanin biosynthetic genes. Specifically, under low auxin concentration, the MdIAA repressor interacts with MdARF13 and prevents its binding to promoters of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes or to MdMYB10, whereas under high auxin concentration MdIAA is degraded by the 26S proteasome, thus allowing MdARF13 to repress anthocyanin biosynthesis Wang et al.

Finally, MdMYB1 was found to interact with the promoter of ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR3 ERF3 , a key regulator of ethylene biosynthesis, thus providing a positive feedback on ethylene biosynthesis and as a consequence an increase in anthocyanin accumulation An et al.

Homologs of apple MdMYB10 have been isolated in many other Rosaceae , including PpMYB10 , FaMYB10 , PyMYB10 , and PavMYB In most of these fruits, an MBW complex has been identified. In peach Prunus persica , PpMYB10, PpbHLH3, and PpWD40 are involved in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis by forming a MBW complex Figure 2D ; Liu et al.

In red-fleshed peaches, PpMYB10 is activated by the NAC transcription factors BLOOD BL and PpNAC1, which are under control of the PpSPL1 repressor Zhou et al.

In addition, low temperature-dependent DNA demethylation has been recently observed in the promoter of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, except for PpGST Zhu et al. Instead, the expression and activity of PpGST, directly activated by PpMYB10 and PpbHLH3, were found to be a key step for anthocyanin regulation in a red-fleshed peach cultivar, resulting in a reduction of both anthocyanin accumulation and expression of biosynthetic and regulatory genes upon PpGST silencing Zhao et al.

In pear, an MBW complex has not been identified, but PyMYB and PybHLH3 were found to interact with PyERF3 in red pear fruit. In addition, PyMYB10 and PyMYB showed an additive effect in activating anthocyanins when co-expressed in tobacco and strawberry Yao et al. In kiwifruit, AcMYB10 and AcMYB from Actinidia chinensis activate the CHS , DFR , flavonoidgalattosyltransferase F3GT and LDOX genes Li et al.

Recently, AcMYB and AcbHLH42 have been also identified as activators of ANS , F3GT and anthocyanin biosynthesis in the inner pericarp of A.

chinensis Wang et al. In tomato, two tightly linked R2R3-MYB genes, SlANT1 and SlAN2 , were considered as the main positive regulators controlling anthocyanin levels in the skin of fruits Mes et al.

Both activated anthocyanin biosynthesis when overexpressed in tomato fruits, leaves, and flowers Mathews et al.

Expression of the WDR gene SlAN11 seems to be constitutive and does not require SlAN2 , whereas the expression of SlANT1 is not detectable in wild-type tomato Kiferle et al. This is consistent with studies in other species showing that MYB proteins regulate the transcription of their bHLH partners and subsequently form with the bHLH protein and the ubiquitously expressed WDR one an MBW complex that activates the anthocyanin genes.

These studies proved that i only SlAN2like is necessary for anthocyanin synthesis Sun et al. In other Solanum species, such as eggplant, pepper, and potato, no differences were observed in the expression level of WD40 genes i.

Despite different R2R3-MYB putative activators have been reported in eggplant Solanum melongena , only SmMYB1 and SmMYB75 have been demonstrated to activate anthocyanin biosynthesis in the fruit and to interact with SmTT8 in activating SmCHS Zhang et al.

In potato Solanum tuberosum , the R2R3-MYB transcription factor StAN1 and the bHLHs StbHLH1 or StJAF13 are necessary for anthocyanin biosynthesis in tuber skin and flesh Payyavula et al.

In addition to StAN1, StMYBA1 and StMYB were also found to activate anthocyanin biosynthesis in tobacco by transient assays Liu et al.

Very recently, a genome-wide association study has identified two closely related R2R3-MYB genes, StMYB88 and StMYB89 , representing potential regulators of anthocyanin biosynthesis in tuber flesh Li et al. In pepper, the upregulation of CaMYBA and CabHLH has been correlated with the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in anthocyanin-pigmented fruits Ohno et al.

Recently, the R2R3-MYB CaANT1 , CaANT2 , and CaAN1 genes have been proposed to interact with CaTTG1 in an MMBW complex able to regulate the expression of LBGs in purple pepper Tang et al.

In carrot Daucus carota , the R2R3-MYB transcription factor DcMYB7 has been demonstrated the main positive regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple roots by activating DcbHLH3 and the biosynthetic genes Iorizzo et al.

Despite the overexpression of DcMYB6 resulted in anthocyanin accumulation in Arabidopsis Xu et al. Recently, DcMYB was found to activate DcbHLH3 and anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, including those responsible for anthocyanin glycosylation and acylation Xu et al. Other MYB , bHLH , and WD40 genes have been associated with anthocyanin accumulation in carrot roots, but their functional validation is presently lacking Kodama et al.

Similar to Arabidopsis, many subgroup 4 R2R3-MYB repressors have been identified in fruit species Chen et al. Based on phylogenetic analyses, these R2R3-MYBs are divided into AtMYB4-like repressors, which control the phenylpropanoid metabolism by directly inhibiting biosynthetic genes, and FaMYB1-like repressors, which regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis by disrupting the MBW complex Chen et al.

FaMYB1 from strawberry is the first identified R2R3-MYB containing an EAR motif in the C-terminal domain in fruit species. Since then, other FaMYB1-like proteins acting upon MBW complexes have been identified.

The FaMYB1 gene is expressed at high levels only at ripe fruit stages, consistent with its role of anthocyanin repressor in the latter stages of strawberry fruit maturation Aharoni et al.

PhMYB27, and PhMYBx from petunia were found to act upon MBW complexes to repress anthocyanin synthesis Koes et al. A newly identified anthocyanin R2R3-MYB repressor, StMYB44, containing an EAR-repression domain, represses the anthocyanin biosynthesis in tuber flesh in response to high temperature without interacting with a bHLH factor.

In fact, StMYB44 down-regulates the expression of StAN1 , StbHLH1 , and anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, thus resulting in a redirection of metabolic flux into chlorogenic acid or lignin biosynthesis Liu et al. Interestingly, the R2R3-MYB27 repressor from kiwifruit is transcriptionally inhibited by high sugar concentrations i.

A VvMYB4-like transcription factor from grape, highly expressed in the skin of berries, resulted in down-regulation of LBGs when overexpressed in tobacco flowers Pérez-Díaz et al.

As an exception, the AtMYB4-like MdMYB16 acts as homodimer to directly inhibit the anthocyanin biosynthetic genes via its EAR repressor domain Xu et al. In recent years, several studies have highlighted the important role of miRNAs involved in fine-tuning flavonoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis.

Based on initial studies and recent validations, MYB11 , MYB12 , and MYB have been confirmed as targeted by miR in Arabidopsis Figure 3E , thereby regulating flavonol production Sharma et al.

On the other hand, the expression of TCP3 , and therefore its activity as anthocyanin enhancer through the interaction with the MBW complex and the MYBL2 repressor Figure 3A , is feedback inhibited by miR Nag et al.

In Arabidopsis, SPL9, which negatively regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis through interfering with the formation of the MBW complex, is also under the negative control of miR and determines the acropetal accumulation of anthocyanins in Arabidopsis stem. Increased miR activity at the junction between rosette and stem promotes high levels of anthocyanins, whereas reduced miR activity in the upper part of stem results in SPL9 repression of anthocyanin synthesis and redirection of metabolic flux to high levels of flavonols Gou et al.

In addition, when miR is induced by salt and drought stress, SPL9 is repressed, resulting in the activation of the anthocyanin pathway through PAP1 activity Figure 3E , whereas in non-stressed conditions, miR is suppressed and SPL9 repression of anthocyanins is restored Cui et al. In grape, miR expression was found to be modulated by multiple hormonal signals i.

Several studies showed that miR is also involved in the negative regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to different signals Hsieh et al. Sucrose, phosphate starvation, and ABA have been shown to directly induce Trans-acting siRNA gene 4 TAS4 and miR and indirectly through activation of PAP1 , PAP2 , and MYB expression.

Interestingly, miR also directly targets MYB , suggesting a close relationship between these MYBs, miR , and TAS4 Hsieh et al.

Similarly, miR negatively controls anthocyanin biosynthesis by repressing the expression of BrPAP1 , BrPAP2 , and BrMYB82 through BrTAS4 in Brassica rapa Zhou et al.

In contrast, in Arabidopsis miR and miRa positively regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in seedlings. HY5 and SPL7 have been found to co-regulate several genes in response to light and copper, respectively, including anthocyanin biosynthetic genes through coordinate activation of miR , which promotes anthocyanin accumulation through an undefined mechanism Zhang et al.

As previously reported, miRa has also been demonstrated to enhance anthocyanin biosynthesis in seedlings by inhibiting the expression of MYBL2 through translational repression Wang et al.

miR together with miR inhibits the anthocyanin repressor VvMYB in grape resulting in the activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis Tirumalai et al. However, in kiwifruit and tomato, miR negatively regulates the anthocyanin pathway by repressing AaMYBC1 Li et al. Although the mature sequence of miR is very similar, if not identical, in different species, these findings indicate that miR is associated with negative regulation in tomato and kiwifruit and positive regulation in Arabidopsis.

rapa and apple they down-regulate anthocyanin accumulation by inhibiting MYB repressors or bHLH proteins. Interestingly, two long noncoding natural antisense RNAs lncNATs , named asDcMYB6 and asDcMYB7 , have been shown to be transcribed in opposite direction to DcMYB6 and DcMYB7 , respectively, and to be highly expressed in purple carrots compared to orange ones, like their corresponding genes.

These lncNATs may represent a novel player in post-transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in carrot Chialva et al. The health benefits of anthocyanins make them important targets for improving existing commercial varieties for anthocyanin-rich functional foods, which help consumers to achieve a greater content of anthocyanins in their diets.

Enrichment of bioactives could be particularly useful to assess the nutritional properties of different bioactives by comparing near-isogenic plant-based foods that vary only in the type and quantity of the bioactives under analysis Martin et al.

Most efforts have been focused on increasing anthocyanins by introducing or inducing the expression of MBW transcription factors to activate the endogenous anthocyanin biosynthetic genes either by conventional breeding or by metabolic engineering.

The introgression of dominant mutations i. Furthermore, the recessive gene atroviolacea atv and the constitutive photoresponsive high-pigment-1 hp-1 allele in combination with Aft or Abg have been shown to stimulate a higher production of anthocyanins in the peel Povero et al. In order to increase the anthocyanin content in tomato fruits, anthocyanin regulatory genes from different plant species have been expressed in tomato most successfully when the bHLH Delila and MYB Rosea1 genes from snapdragon were overexpressed under the control of a tomato fruit-specific promoter, to give purple tomato fruits containing large amounts of anthocyanins i.

High expression of AtMYB12 , controlling flavonol synthesis in Arabidopsis, together with Delila and Rosea1 further enhanced anthocyanin production in tomato by activating pathways of primary metabolism glycolysis, the TCA cycle, the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and the shikimate pathway toward the production of substrates, ATP and reducing power for the phenylpropanoid pathway Zhang et al.

A similar strategy was used to obtain tomato fruits with high levels of resveratrol and genistein, reaching levels comparable to those present in soy-based products, like tofu Zhang et al. Based on a similar concept, arogenate dehydratases ADT genes, controlling the level of phenylalanine, have been proposed as new targets for metabolic engineering to modulate anthocyanin content in plants Chen et al.

In general, metabolic engineering that combines multi-level transcriptional regulation and pathway rerouting offers an excellent strategy for biofortification of foods, for the production of plant-derived phytochemicals and ingredients, and for establishing materials for comparative nutrition studies.

Such comparisons should lead to much clearer understanding of the health benefits of foods rich in specific polyphenolic phytonutrients in the diet, and shed light on their mechanisms of action Zhang et al. Novel regulatory targets for enhancing anthocyanin biosynthesis in plant food could include the COP1-mediated degradation of MYB transcription factors involved in anthocyanin production, such as MdMYB1 in apple Li et al.

Beyond this, an understanding of the mechanisms that determine anthocyanin stability, such as anthocyanin decoration i. There are several reviews of epidemiological and preclinical intervention studies reporting the beneficial effects of anthocyanins on health He and Giusti, ; Tsuda, ; Pojer et al.

Despite this, in developed countries, there is an increasing trend in eating energy-dense foods, rich in sugar and saturated fatty acids.

Increased consumption of anthocyanin-rich fruits and vegetables could have positive effects on health. This is even more important considering that purified anthocyanins consumed as dietary supplements do not have the same beneficial effects as anthocyanins in a natural food matrix Prior et al.

In this context, the development of near-isogenic genotypes of common foods, devoid or rich in anthocyanins is of importance for four reasons.

First, the production of near-isogenic plant foods allows to reduce some of the complexity of food in the diet—health relationship and provide model foods that can be used for both animal feeding studies and human intervention trials for assessing the role of plant bioactives in the diet.

Specifically, being near-isogenic, the anthocyanin-free genotypes represent a matched control for assessing the health-protective effects of anthocyanins, allowing the identification of their specific mechanisms of action compared to those of other polyphenols and phytonutrients present in the food matrix.

Second, different anthocyanin-rich foods can be used to assess whether the consumption of comparable amounts of anthocyanins in different food matrices gives the same health benefits against different specific diseases. Third, anthocyanin-rich foods can be used in in animal models or directly in human intervention studies, if there are no safety concerns, to validate their health benefits.

Fourth, once assessed, they can add back health-promoting anthocyanins to the diet. Anthocyanin-rich and anthocyanin-free comparator foods have been developed successfully either by conventional breeding i.

Below we provide a summary of their beneficial effects also reported in Table 1. Table 1. Health effects of anthocyanin-containing foods against anthocyanin-free comparators.

Anthocyanin-rich maize i. It mainly contains cyanidin 3-glucoside and, to a small extent, pelargonidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside Pedreschi and Cisneros-Zevallos, ; Petroni et al.

The beneficial effects of purple corn have been recognized for a very long time. Aztecs used to prepare a beverage rich in purple corn extract, called Tlaolli , used to treat a number of illnesses.

There are indications that a daily intake of anthocyanins in quantities comparable to those consumed in a Mediterranean diet is protective against cardiac injuries and pathologies. The cardioprotective effects of an anthocyanin-rich diet were tested using an ex vivo model of isolated perfused rat heart Toufektsian et al.

The infarct size in rats fed with anthocyanin-rich R1 C1 blue corn diet for 8weeks was reduced compared with those of rats fed with the near-isogenic r1 c1 yellow corn diet, meaning that anthocyanins can induce a state of myocardial resistance.

Moreover, the anthocyanin-rich diet was able to increase the total and reduced glutathione in preischemic heart, suggesting that the protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury might be related, at least in part, to an improvement in endogenous antioxidant defenses.

Most importantly, dietary anthocyanins from blue corn were shown to modulate the metabolism of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFA and increase plasma concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA , two fatty acids known to have a very important role of protection against heart disease complications Toufektsian et al.

Hence, the comparison of these isogenic corn lines showed that anthocyanins might exert their beneficial effects in two ways: directly, e. Dietary anthocyanins from purple corn have been shown to be protective against the cardiotoxic side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs, like Doxorubicin DOXO.

A recent study Petroni et al. Moreover, the mid-term DOXO-induced mortality was significantly attenuated in mice on the RD compared to mice fed with YD. In addition, a purple corn extract did not interfere with the chemotherapeutic activity of DOXO in tumor cell lines.

The mechanisms by which purple corn protects against DOXO side effects are still under investigation. Dietary anthocyanins from blue corn have also been shown to be protective from brain mitochondrial DNA mtDNA damage induced by ethanol.

Oxidative stress due to ethanol metabolism is known to cause damage to mtDNA. Mice consuming the anthocyanin-free diet and ethanol showed increased reactive oxygen species ROS and mtDNA damage in their brains, whereas consumption of ethanol with the anthocyanin-rich diet did not show the accumulation of damaged mtDNA.

Again, this may be due to the induction of antioxidant defense responses promoted by the blue corn diets Demeilliers et al. Other studies have demonstrated that anthocyanins from purple corn have preventive effects on the development of obesity and hyperglycemia induced by the consumption of a high-fat diet HFD.

When fed for 12weeks with a HFD, addition of purple corn extracts to the diet prevented weight gain and hypertrophy of adipocytes, which is an increase in cell size of adipocytes generally associated with increased cellular stress in the adipose tissue and with systemic diabetes Tsuda et al.

Moreover, in cell cultures of human adipocytes, cyanidin 3-glucoside C3G positively regulated obesity and type 2 diabetes markers increasing adiponectin and down-regulating PAI-1 Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 and IL-6 Interleukin-6; Tsuda et al.

Adiponectin is the most important adipocytokine, and its expression is inversely correlated to the amount of fat tissue in the body: In conditions of obesity and type 2 diabetes, it is downregulated, while it is up-regulated during starvation Kadowaki et al.

Elevated levels of PAI-1 and IL-6 are characteristics of obesity and type-2 diabetes Jung and Choi, Another study on the adipose-tissue macrophages ATM confirmed the protective effect of purple corn against obesity-related inflammation. The ability of anthocyanins to exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity makes them eligible for the study of different pathologies characterized by both oxidative stress and inflammation.

A study conducted on Sgca null dystrophic mice, with a severe degenerative myopathy similar to Duchenne, has demonstrated that anthocyanins from purple corn counteracted the progression of muscular dystrophy early and late-stage acting on both oxidative and inflammatory status without affecting regeneration.

Purple diet, but not the near-isogenic yellow diet, ameliorated tissue morphology, fibrosis, and muscle performance, promoted a metabolic shift to an oxidative fiber metabolism, and increased the mitochondrial amount counteracting the progression of the disease.

Finally, mice fed with purple corn diet presented less macrophage infiltration compared with the yellow diet counterpart Saclier et al. Anthocyanins from purple corn reduced the orofacial pain induced by the inflammation of the trigeminal nerve, by preventing the macrophage infiltration in the trigeminal ganglion and the activation of microglia i.

In a rat model of trigeminal sensitization drinking near-isogenic yellow or purple corn extract, anthocyanins and acetyl salicylic acid ASA equally reduced allodynia and macrophage infiltration, but only purple corn extract inhibited microglial activation in vivo and reverted LPS-induced inflammation in vitro resulting in lower production of pro-inflammatory mediators IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β; Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, MCP-1; inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS and in an increase in the anti-inflammatory ones Interleukin, IL; Interleukin 13, IL; Arg-1; Fizz1, YM-1; Magni et al.

The nutriepigenetic effect of anthocyanins was also recently investigated. Anthocyanins, as many other phytonutrients, can alter the phenotype through epigenetic modifications. One of these modification includes histone tail modifications that can alter structure of the chromatin and modify gene expression and function.

Many histone modifications have been identified, and the most studied one is the trimethylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 H3K4me3 , which is associated with transcribed genes in mice and humans.

Persico et al. Moreover, purple corn extract reduced the clinical manifestations of diabetic nephropathy, since it lowered diabetes-associated glomerular mesangial expansion i. There is some evidence that purple corn has anticancer activity as well. The decrease in RAS and phosphorylated Akt correlated with the increase of the cleaved caspase 3 which induced apoptosis Fukamachi et al.

More recently, purple corn extract was reported to retard the progression of the tumor, reducing the percentage of adenocarcinoma in a dose-dependent manner in Transgenic Rats for Adenocarcinoma of Prostate TRAP model rats. The most effective anthocyanins appeared to be both cyanidin 3-glucoside and pelargonidin 3-glucoside Long et al.

Tarocco, Moro, and Sanguinello are the three major blood varieties that differ from the other varieties of the sweet orange group Valencia Late, Washington navel, and Navelina for the presence of anthocyanins, mainly represented by C3G.

Sweet orange is an interspecific hybrid that has no sexual segregation, so that all varieties of this group can be considered near-isogenic Butelli et al. Tarocco is from Italy, and it is medium-sized seedless and very flavorful. All three blood varieties of sweet orange have a common ancestor, since they all carry the same Copia -like retrotransposon in the subgroup 6 R2R3-MYB Ruby gene, responsible for the cold-dependent fruit-specific activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis, and arose through selection of bud mutations Butelli et al.

Moro and the common sweet orange Navelina contain comparable concentrations of vitamin C, flavanones, and hydroxycinnamic acids, thus allowing their use in comparative nutritional studies with the aim of testing their obesity-preventing activities Titta et al.

Dietary supplementation of Moro juice significantly reduced body weight gain and fat accumulation in mice. Mice fed for 12weeks with a standard diet SD, 3.

Moro juice was also effective in almost abolishing weight gain induced by a HFD 5. Mice fed a HFD with drinking water or Navelina juice showed no such reduction Titta et al. In addition, glucose, fatty acid, and triglyceride blood levels were not altered in mice drinking Moro juice on a HFD.

Analysis of the transcriptomes of adipocytes of the mice on the different diets revealed that the Moro juice can counteract the effects of the HFD on adipocytes by altering gene expression. In agreement with this study, mice fed with HFD and Moro juice showed a reduction in body weight gain compared to mice in the same condition but drinking water.

Moreover, Moro juice could counteract liver steatogenesis in HFD fed mice Salamone et al. Analyses performed using Moro anthocyanin-rich extracts confirmed the beneficial effects in reducing fat accumulation in mice, but the Moro extract was less effective than crude Moro juice.

The administration of purified C3G did not show any effect on weight gain Titta et al. This suggested that other components of the Moro juice, in addition to anthocyanins, may contribute to the anti-obesity effects.

For these reasons functional foods are extremely important and the consumption of fresh fruit has to be preferred to fruit extracts or fruit-derived supplementations.

A study in healthy human volunteers consuming either blood orange juice or blond juice, showed that consumption of either type of orange juice decreased the pro-coagulant activity of whole blood, an indicator of cardiovascular risk. This suggested a role of antioxidants independent of the anthocyanin content of blood orange juice Napoleone et al.

Another study on healthy humans showed potential protective effects of both blood and blond orange juice on the low-grade pro-inflammatory status induced by the consumption of a standardized fatty meal Cerletti et al.

Consumption of a fatty meal can induce an acute inflammatory status, defined by an increase in platelet and leukocyte counts and in myeloperoxidase MPO degranulation of granulocytes.

Granulocytes release MPO, a peroxidase enzyme, into the extracellular space in the inflammatory locus, increasing inflammation. Frequent fatty meal consumption may lead to chronic low-grade inflammation and to a series of events that may develop into atherothrombosis Cerletti et al. Consumption of both blood and blond orange juice prevented neutrophil MPO degranulation, used as a marker of cell activation induced by the fatty meal, but did not modify other leukocyte cellular markers.

High anthocyanin, blood orange juice was effective in reducing total cholesterol in plasma, unaccompanied by high-density lipoprotein HDL changes.

Both juices reduced blood glucose levels Cerletti et al. Other preclinical studies have confirmed that consumption of blood oranges can have anti-inflammatory effects and limit body weight gain, enhance insulin sensitivity and decrease serum triglycerides and total cholesterol in mice Grosso et al.

Tomato is among the most important vegetables consumed world-wide. It is rich in vitamins, flavonoids, and other health-promoting compounds, but usually it does not contain anthocyanins, except in some tomato wild species, such as S. chilense Jones et al. The red color, in fact, is due to the presence of carotenoids, including lycopene and the orange-colored β-carotene.

Since tomato is the second most consumed among vegetables in the human diet, the importance of this fruit as a vehicle for nutrients and bioactive compounds for improving human health, is clear. Biotechnological and conventional breeding approaches have been used to engineer anthocyanin production in tomatoes Gonzali et al.

Tomatoes genetically engineered to produce high levels of delphinidin and petunidin were produced through the expression of Delila and Rosea1 regulatory genes from A. majus , specifically in fruit Butelli et al. Mice lacking p53 are prone to develop soft tissue carcinoma at an early age.

Mice fed with purple tomato powder supplemented diets showed a significant extension of life span compared to mice fed diets supplemented with red wild-type tomato powder or SD without supplementation.

Interestingly, the combination of different polyphenols was more effective than single flavonoid classes Liso et al. Overall, these studies indicate that tomato extracts enriched in multiple classes of flavonoids, including anthocyanins, display not only a direct anti-inflammatory role, but also a change on the gut microbiota that prevents a chronic inflammation status of the gut.

Apple and apple-related products are some of the most important dietary sources of polyphenols. Moreover, recent discoveries suggest that apple consumption reduces the risk of a number of chronic diseases Boyer and Liu, ; Hyun and Jang, Anthocyanins accumulate preferentially in the peel, where they are responsible for the color of apples.

In addition, some consumers are used to peel apples and other fruits before eating them, thus limiting the consumption of anthocyanins from these dietary sources. There are a number of wild red-fleshed apples, and intense breeding has created red-fleshed apple varieties, because of the increasing interest in developing commercial red-fleshed apple varieties.

Extensive crossbreeding programs involving good flavored, white-fleshed apples, have managed to improve the poor taste of the wild red-fleshed apple, producing a number of good tasting red-fleshed apples Bars-Cortina et al.

Sensory and volatile profile analysis of these apples revealed no differences in flavor and aroma between MdMYB10 -modified apple and the near-isogenic Royal Gala apple Espley et al.

However, consumption of red-fleshed MdMYB10 -modified apple affected inflammatory pathway and gut microbiota in mice. After 7days of diet supplemented with MdMYB10 -modified apple, expression of a group of cytokine genes linked to inflammation Interleukin-2 receptor B , Il2rb ; CC motif chemokine receptor 2 and 10 , Ccr2 and Ccr10 ; C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 , Cxcl10 was decreased by twofold compared to mice fed with a diet supplemented with non-transformed Royal Gala apples.

After 21days, mice fed with MdMYB10 -modified apple showed a tenfold decrease in prostaglandin E2 PGE2 and a non-significant decrease in leukotriene B4 LTB4 plasma levels, compared with mice fed with Royal Gala apple. PGE2 and LTB4 are both inflammatory mediators derived from the arachidonic acid metabolism: the first, synthesized by cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 COX-1, COX-2 , is involved in the cardiovascular event associated with inflammation, while the second, a lipoxygenase product, is involved in the chemotaxis of leukocytes.

Moreover, the gut bacterial flora changed in relation with the diet, and mice fed with MdMYB10 -modified apple showed a significant decrease in Lactobacillus spp. Espley et al. A similar study was conducted on 25 healthy adults in a randomized cross-over controlled trial using naturally bred red-fleshed apples or white-fleshed control apples.

The analyses of fecal microbiota and of gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells PBMC, which consist of peripheral blood cells having a round nucleus, like lymphocytes and monocytes have shown minimal differences between the two groups, but genes regulated by red-fleshed apples were immunoglobulin-related, suggesting a potential role in modulating the immune function Barnett et al.

Finally, both red- and white-fleshed apples seemed to have beneficial effects in hypercholesterolemic rats Yuste et al.

The benefits of apple and anthocyanin consumption are well established Knekt et al. A considerable body of research has been devoted to identify the MYB-bHLH-WD40 transcription factors involved in the MBW complex activating the anthocyanin biosynthesis in many crop species, with the final aim of improving the anthocyanin content of plant-derived foods by means of conventional breeding or by metabolic engineering.

Additional regulators of the anthocyanin pathway have been identified recently, acting as repressors disrupting the MBW complex or activators stabilizing the MBW complex. In addition, new levels of regulation have been described, in which the activity of repressors and activators is controlled by post-translational regulation.

Anthocyanin production is also under epigenetic and post-transcriptional regulation histone acetylation and miRNAs, respectively. Despite research on positive and negative regulators has been extensive in the past decade, there are some gaps that could be filled.

In some species, MBW complexes activating anthocyanins and related negative regulators still need to be identified. Are the negative regulatory systems identified in Arabidopsis, apple, and peach e.

Is TCP3 and its role as enhancer of MBW function and passive repressor of MYBL2 also conserved? Can these systems be exploited to enhance anthocyanin content in edible organs? Further studies are required to understand the role of DNA methylation and histone modifications in anthocyanin repression both in model and crop species and eventually verified as a new possible approach to enhance organ-specific anthocyanin biosynthesis.

Can miRNAs e. Are the lncRNAs newly identified in carrot conserved in other species? Can they be employed to enhance anthocyanin accumulation? Advancing our knowledge of anthocyanin biosynthesis will allow the development of new biotechnological tools for the generation of value-added plants with increased anthocyanin content, which help consumers to achieve the desired amount of anthocyanins in their daily diet.

Enrichment of foods in anthocyanins will also be particularly useful for the comparison of the nutritional properties of these bioactives from different food sources. This may contribute to define which is the bioavailability and contribution to health-promoting properties of the single anthocyanin species present in a plant food, of their combination and eventually of the specific decorating groups in a food context.

All authors contributed equally to the manuscript, and read and approved the final manuscript. KP and CT contributed to conceptualization. FC, AM, MT, KP, and CT contributed to writing, reviewing, and editing.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.

Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Aharoni, A.

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Plant 3, — Hsieh, L. Uncovering small RNA-mediated responses to phosphate deficiency in Arabidopsis by deep sequencing. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 65 3 , Anti-obesity effects of artificial planting blueberry Vaccinium ashei anthocyanin in high-fat diet-treated mice.

International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 67 3 , Fat accumulation and inflammation are the changes that cause damage in glucose metabolism and insulin resistance.

That's why disrupted glucose metabolism leads to an increase in tissue damage and inflammation. Finally, endothelial dysfunction occurs Frueh et al.

Systems biology of the functional and dysfunctional endothelium. Cardiovascular Research, 99 2 , The anti-diabetic role of anthocyanins is based on the inhibition of some enzymes such as α -glucosidase and α -amylase available in the pancreas Kalita et al.

Inhibition of α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and aldose reductase by potato polyphenolic compounds. PLoS One, 13 1 , e The anti-diabetic effect of anthocyanins can be seen just like traditional anti-diabetic drugs. In their activation mechanisms, the carbohydrate digestion is being prevented in the gut by reducing the level of glucose available in the blood.

Anthocyanins mainly including cyanidin, delphinidin, pelargonidin, and petunidin glycosides have inhibition effect on the enzymes that response from the digestion of the carbohydrates Belwal et al.

Dietary anthocyanins and insulin resistance: When food becomes a medicine. Nutrients, 9 10 , In recent years, comprehensive studies regarding insulin resistance on human adipocytes cells 3T3-L1 , muscle cells L6 myotubes , β -cells and satellite cells available in the rodents pancreas, the rat liver cells H4IIE and the hepatocytes HepG2 cells , have been done in-vitro conditions Belwal et al.

It has been found that anthocyanins can lead to raising glucose level and insulin sensitivity in the adipose tissues and the muscles, and thus can regulate insulin resistance for diabetics. Furthermore, anthocyanins can suppress the lipogenic factors that play an effective role in the adipocyte cells Scazzocchio et al.

CyanidinO-β-glucoside and protocatechuic acid exert insulin-like effects by upregulating PPARγ activity in human omental adipocytes. Diabetes, 60 9 , Leptin plays a significant role among these neuron cells. The main hormone related to satiety is leptin.

Leptin is synthesized and secreted mainly by fat cells called adipocytes of the white adipose tissue. Its main function is regulating energy balance. The leptin receptors are mainly found in the hypothalamus, which is known to act in controlling metabolic rate and food intake.

It is also produced by brown adipose tissue. Leptin is satiety controlling hormone. Leptin concentration increases or decreases in plasma. Normally, if the body fat mass increases, the level of leptin in blood also increases.

Leptin and the maintenance of elevated body weight. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 19 2 , Leptin resistance is a disfunctioning of leptin mechanism that results in overweight and obesity Wu et al.

Food Chemistry, 1 , Lipid phosphatases as drug discovery targets for type 2 diabetes. Drug Discovery, 5 4 , Therefore, controlling of leptin resistance in obesity treatment is an important strategy.

The purified cyanidin 3-glucoside used in the diet of the rats has found to stimulate adipocytokine leptin and adiponectin secretion in the adipose tissue Nemes et al.

Effect of anthocyanin-rich tart cherry extract on inflammatory mediators and adipokines involved in Type 2 diabetes in a high fat diet induced obesity mouse model. Nutrients, 11 9 , But, there are also the findings in which the different correlation between leptin and adiponectin was found.

For example, adiponectin levels in the mice fed with the anthocyanin-rich foods increased while leptin secretion is decreased Wu et al. Raspberry anthocyanin consumption prevents diet-induced obesity by alleviating oxidative stress and modulating hepatic lipid metabolism. Approaches regarding the functions of GLP-1, a member of the incretin hormone family, suggest that it acts as an endocrine hormone.

Pharmacology, physiology, and mechanisms of incretin hormone action. Cell Metabolism, 17 6 , GLP-1 controls saturation and food intake in the gastrointestinal tract.

Having an important place in glucose homeostasis, it is a neuropeptide hormone and found in both the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. After food intake, as a response to glucose, stimulates insulin release and inhibits glucagon release.

This mechanism is responsible for weight loss and glycemic control Muscogiuri et al. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 28 2 , CNS Drugs, 29 12 , The highest L-cell density expressing GLP-1 is in the colon, but nutrients do not reach the colon until after a meal 60 min.

Also, the insulin peak occurs after 15 min Wichmann et al. Microbial modulation of energy availability in the colon regulates intestinal transit. Tani et al.

Anthocyanin mostly delphinidine 3-rutinoside rich blackcurrant extracts were found to ameliorate glucose tolerance by stimulating GLP-1 secretion and inducing insulin secretion. Castro-Acosta et al. Drinks containing anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant extract decrease postprandial blood glucose, insulin and incretin concentrations.

The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 38, They determined that beverages containing black currant delayed the occurrence of glucose in the blood and decrease the insulin and incretin releasing. The concentration of GLP-1 in blood plasma was increased for 90 min after mg High dose consumption.

As a result of the study, it was found that the blackcurrant consumption equivalent to approximately g reduces incretin, postprandial glycemia, and insulinemia secration. Anthocyanin content of Blackcurrant shows cardio-metabolic health benefits on human metabolism.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide GIP is a peptide hormone which expresses the gut. After food intake, it binds to glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptors GIPRs and became activated.

Brain, stomach, adipocytes, pancreatic islets are the different tissues expressing GIPRs. GIP signaling is related with numerous activities, liked overnutrition to obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes.

K-cells and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide in health and disease. Vitamins and Hormones, 84, reported that GIP intervents in the modulation of β -cell neogenesis, differentiation, proliferation as well as the stimulation of glucose-stimulated insulin-releasing.

Additionally, GIP has extra-pancreatic effects and facilitates insulin secretion. The GIP level is associated with increased visceral fat area VFA independent of the effect of low-density lipoprotein and insulin, indicating that GIP is modulating adiposite deposits Møller et al.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide is associated with lower low-density lipoprotein but unhealthy fat distribution, independent of insulin: the ADDITION-PRO Study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2 , In terms of anthociyanin effects on GIP, Castro-Acosta et al.

determined that, anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant drinks, by the mg High dose samples, showed off the inhibitory effect in plasma glucose, and insulin concentrations for 30 min and GIP concentrations in plasma up to 90 min.

reducing postprandial glycemia, insulinemia and incretin secration by GIP suppression, increase the cardio-metabolic health benefits on human metabolism. Role of ghrelin in the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal disease. Gut and Liver, 7 5 , Dysfunctions of leptin, ghrelin, BDNF and endocannabinoids in eating disorders: beyond the homeostatic control of food intake.

Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38 3 , In addition, it acts in the regulation of immune and cardiovascular systems, regulates insulin-like growth factor and plays a dominant role in gastrointestinal system such as gastric emptying and bowel motility Melissas et al. Alterations of global gastrointestinal motility after sleeve gastrectomy: a prospective study.

Annals of Surgery, 6 , Although ghrelin is still not well-defined in the pathophysiology of obesity, the relationship between increased ghrelin levels and increased appetite has been determined, and the control of the hormone is could be an effective way of treating obesity.

In the studies conducted, the problem was determined to be insensitivity or oversensitivity to ghrelin regardless of the consumption of food Anderson et al.

The impact of laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy on plasma ghrelin levels: a systematic review. Obesity Surgery, 23 9 , Alterations in gut hormones after laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy: a prospective clinical and laboratory investigational study.

Annals of Surgery, 4 , The effects of ghrelin on obesity are evident in studies conducted between obese and slim experimental object comparing ghrelin levels with appetite, although this has not been proven by studies at the molecular level.

In recent decades, it has well understood that microorganism in the available in the human gut is critical in terms of healthiness.

Therefore, the studies focused on the probiotics and the factors which help to their growth and are defined as prebiotics have been increased recently. Diet is a process that acts the gut microbiota and thus the human metabolism.

It has been found that obesity can cause different changes in the content of gut microbiota. It has been observed that the mice nourished with the diet containing high-fat were preserved from the diet originated obesity by anthocyanin-rich food Xie et al. On the other hand, the microbiota belonged to the genetically obese mice has been transplanted into the gut of healthy lean mice and observed that the size of adipose tissue increased.

Due to the consumption of high-fat diet in mice, obesity and the inflammation in white adipose tissue increased and has been found strong correlation regarding the toll-like receptors and chemokine CCL2. It has been determined that the consumption of anthocyanins improved the growth of specific fecal bacteria such as Lactobacillus spp.

and Enterococcus spp. and the probiotic bacteria such as Bifidobacterium spp. Hidalgo et al. Metabolism of anthocyanins by human gut microflora and their influence on gut bacterial growth. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60 15 , The intestinal metabolites of anthocyanins have also beneficial bioactive effects Xie et al.

A positive correlation has been found between the content of anthocyanin metabolites and the growth of Bifidobacteria Xie et al. Obesity could also be affected by intestinal microbiota Parks et al. Genetic control of obesity and gut microbiota composition in response to high-fat, high-sucrose diet in mice.

Cell Metabolism, 17 1 , Gastrointestinal microbiomodulator GIMM utilization causes to support the specific hormones and increases the intestinal short-chain fatty acid concentrations versus to the control group Tsuda, Tsuda, T. Recent progress in anti-obesity and anti-diabetes effect of berries.

Antioxidants, 5 2 , Anthocyanins could play the role just as prebiotics and affect obesity by promoting intestinal bacterial growth Jamar et al.

BioFactors Oxford, England , 43 4 , Raphanus sativus sango sprout contains cyanidin-based anthocyanins and isothiocyanates. In the regarded diet, the number of microorganisms in the intestine increased compared to the high-fat diet while the number of Enterococcus spp.

decreased Vivarelli et al. The combined effect of Sango sprout juice and caloric restriction on metabolic disorders and gut microbiota composition in an obesity model. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 69 2 , Bioavailability and bioaccessibility are the important definitions of the mechanisms that express the absorption and utilization of the anthocyanins by the body.

Because it is not possible to digest all the nutritional components after consumption. Furthermore, all of the absorbed components may not give a beneficial reflection on the body organs. Therefore, it is important how much of the body components are beneficial to the body. Bioavailability is a significant metabolic process that defines the utilization and thus the biodegradability of the dietary nutrients.

Bioavailability is an important factor that designates the preventive effect of anthocyanins against diseases Oracz et al. Bioavailability is a term that can be expressed as the antioxidant amount that has a biological impact, available in blood and urine, after absorption intestinally.

It is a level of ingested component that can show its biological impact when it was included in the systemic circulation in the body. Bioaccessibility is an outcome measurement of in vitro studies that show the potential impact of dietary antioxidants against diseases.

Factors influencing the bioavailability of antioxidants in foods: a critical appraisal. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases: NMCD, 18 10 , In recent studies, regarding the health benefits of anthocyanins, have mainly been focused on three issues; anthocyanin content in the product, bioavailability, and mechanism of their action.

In the systemic circulation, anthocyanins reveal a unique pattern different from flavonoids Bertoia et al. Dietary flavonoid intake and weight maintenance: three prospective cohorts of , US men and women followed for up to 24 years.

BMJ, , i PMID: The effect of pH in the human digestion process is significant in terms of synergistic and antagonistic interactions Braga et al. Bioavailability of anthocyanins: Gaps in knowledge, challenges and future research. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 68, Generally, antioxidative compounds exist in glycosylated forms or as esters or polymers, therefore they cannot be absorbed natively, must be hydrolyzed by the specific enzymes before absorption.

Even, some antioxidants can reach up to the large intestine without degraded Stevens et al. The intestinal fate of citrus flavanones and their effects on gastrointestinal health. Nutrients, 11 7 , Rethinking the mechanism of the health benefits of proanthocyanidins: absorption, metabolism, and interaction with gut microbiota.

Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 18 4 , Potential factors influencing the effects of anthocyanins on blood pressure regulation in humans: a review. Nutrients, 11 6 , The availability of the phenolic compounds is also affected by the nature of the food matrix, for example, their lipophilic structure limits their solubilization and absorption.

Anthocyanin absorption and metabolism by human intestinal Caco-2 cells—A review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16 9 , Another factor that can play a role in the interactions is protein some proteins affect the bioavailability of anthocyanins by modifying biological function Ge et al.

Nanocomplexes composed of chitosan derivatives and β-Lactoglobulin as a carrier for anthocyanins: Preparation, stability and bioavailability in vitro.

Food Research International, , For example, glucose and proteins, except starch, can cause to decrease in the transport efficiency of anthocyanins in the gastric cells Oliveira et al. Comparison of the in vitro gastrointestinal bioavailability of acylated and non-acylated anthocyanins: purple-fleshed sweet potato vs red wine.

They facilitate the introduction of phenolics into the cell and interact for the absorption Tungmunnithum et al. Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds from medicinal plants for pharmaceutical and medical aspects: An overview.

Medicines Basel, Switzerland , 5 3 , Regular consumption of fruit and vegetables is important for daily diet. It has been stated that a long consumption period of anthocyanins causes to increase their beneficial effects on the structure of the cells Tungmunnithum et al. Extrinsic and intrinsic immunometabolism converge: perspectives on future research and therapeutic development for obesity.

Current Obesity Reports, 8 3 , Estimation of the daily intake value of polyphenols is difficult due to the various biological factors. When considering the whole human metabolism, anthocyanins can affect mechanisms of the homeostasis related to lipids, glucose and amino acids and can suppress the inflammation.

In recent years, significant efforts including alternative approaches have been paid to prevent adipogenesis, glucose transport, and intake, to decrease inflammation, and to strengthen the immune response.

Anthocyanins are the compounds that have positive effects on gut microbiota and can interact with them. This synergistic effect can help to decrease inflammatory markers associated with many chronic diseases, and also, can support the hormonal balance. Development of obesity causes chronic inflammation accompanied by insulin resistance and therefore, the harmful microorganisms in the gut become dominant Baldwin et al.

Table grape consumption reduces adiposity and markers of hepatic lipogenesis and alters gut microbiota in butter fat-fed mice. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 27, In obese mice fed with polyphenol-rich grape juice have been observed less white adipose tissue and higher glucose tolerance than the mice fed with high-fat content.

As a result, it has been found that the grape-based treatments changed the microbiota in the gut and decreased the inflammation probability in the white adipose tissues Collins et al. A polyphenol-rich fraction obtained from table grapes decreases adiposity, insulin resistance and markers of inflammation and impacts gut microbiota in high-fat-fed mice.

The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 31, Anthocyanins are compounds that have colors from red to purple. Anthocyanin-rich fruits are could be listed as pomegranate, blackberry, blueberry, goka, blackcurrant, cranberry, aronia, mulberry, sumac drupes, and blood orange; the vegetables are violet cauliflower and red cabbage, and the cereals are black bean and black rice.

Health benefits including antioxidant effects of anthocyanins in fruit and vegetables are affected by the various processing technologies such as drying, pasteurization, concentration etc. Yousuf et al. Health benefits of anthocyanins and their encapsulation for potential use in food systems: a review.

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56 13 , Antiobesity effects of anthocyanins in preclinical and clinical studies. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, , Significant findings of some anthocyanin-rich fruits and vegetables regarding their health benefits are summarized below.

It has been found that anthocyanin-rich foods are significant in terms of anti-obesity activity. As mentioned by Jiao et al. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 64, It should be considered that the bioavailability of anthocyanins according to product type juice, extract, and powdered form may lead to different results on the weight gain of the test animals.

Similar results were also obtained from the mulberry juice. The mulberry juice provided to decrease the level of blood cholesterol, insulin resistance, and body weight just as blueberry juice.

In another study, blueberry juice also decreased the lipid accumulation of the rats Vendrame et al. The effects of wild blueberry consumption on plasma markers and gene expression related to glucose metabolism in the obese Zucker rat. Journal of Medicinal Food, 18 6 , Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cytoprotective effects of blueberry on the obesity pathology have been investigated by Lewis et al.

Dietary supplementation with blueberry partially restores T-cell-mediated function in high-fat-diet-induced obese mice. British Journal of Nutrition, 12 , and Hoskin et al.

Blueberry polyphenol-protein food ingredients: the impact of spray drying on the in vitro antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory markers, glucose metabolism and fibroblast migration. Their cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory roles have been explained by the ability to replicate the signals including nuclear factor stress and the mitogen activated protein kinase.

According the study conducted by Boušová et al. Cranberry extract—enriched diets increase NAD P H: quinone oxidoreductase and catalase activities in obese but not in nonobese mice. The plasma thiol content and glutathione S-transferase enzyme function were increased in both groups and, MDA content in the blood was lowered while the enzymes catalase and liver quinone oxidoreductase increased in the obese mice.

Raspberry is known with effects on obesity and weight gain Wu et al. It was determined that raspberry anthocyanins affected insulin signaling pathway in the obese mice, due to some metabolomics produced. Raspberry anthocyanins found to reduce obesity by alleviation of oxidative stress, regulation of lipid metabolism and amelioration of the gut microbiome Tu et al.

Characterization of the functional changes in mouse gut microbiome Associated with Increased Akkermansia muciniphila Population Modulated by Dietary Black Raspberries. ACS Omega, 3 9 , Also, raspberry extracts have a controlling effect on obesogenic signals in the hepatocytes Fotschki et al.

Raspberry Polyphenolic Extract Regulates Obesogenic Signals in Hepatocytes. Molecules Basel, Switzerland , 23 9 , The mulberry extract was determined to decrease liver steatosis, adipose hypertrophy and insulin resistance for the subjects fed with the high-fat diet.

Yimam et al. Morus alba, A Medicinal Plant for Appetite Suppression and Weight Loss. Journal of Medicinal Food, 22 7 , also determined that Morus alba extracts provide appetite suppression, regulation of body weight, and improve metabolic syndrome.

It has been found that weight gain and obesity can be prevented by this anthocyanin concentrate. Aronia as an anthocyanin-rich fruit was observed to inhibit the fat accumulation in the internal organs and hyperglycemia due to prevention of pancreatic lipase enzyme activity in rats, thereby intestinal lipid absorption can be reduced Lim et al.

Nutrients, 11 5 , Table grapes , having high content if polyphenols and anthocyanins, determined to be negative metabolic consequences of the high-fat diet Collins et al.

In a study in which the test animals were used, it was observed that the mice fed with a high-fat diet and the grape stalk, caused to improve glucose tolerance, reduce the inflammation and white adipose tissue formation Kim et al. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 43 1 , In addition, when the moderate level of fat diet including the grapes was used to feed the test animals, adiposity reduced, the liver triglyceride levels increased and, white adipose tissue inflammatory gene expression decreased moderately Pérez-Ramírez et al.

International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 71 1 , The anthocyanins-rich vegetables as purple colored carrots, potatoes, and maize Zea mays L. have significant health benefits including preventing obesity just like anthocyanins-rich fruits.

The metabolic syndrome parameters and insulin resistance have been investigated throughout 8 weeks in the obese Zucker rats fed with purple color vegetables potatoes and carrots versus the same vegetables without purple color Ayoub et al.

The effect of anthocyanin-rich purple vegetable diets on metabolic syndrome in obese Zucker rats. Journal of Medicinal Food, 20 12 , It has been expressed that the purple vegetables may lead to positive metabolic changes in the test rats having the background of a high-fat diet and obesity.

Purple corn can play a role in preventing obesity-associated disorders by mechanisms such as downregulating inflammatory mediators including IL-6, TNF-alpha, COX-2 and IL-1 beta Tomay et al.

Purple corn extract induces long-lasting reprogramming and M2 phenotypic switch of adipose tissue macrophages in obese mice. Journal of Translational Medicine, 17 1 , Black carrot Daucus Carota L.

Akhtar et al. Black carrot Daucus carota L. and purple maize Zhang et al. have significant roles in metabolic syndrome, Diabetes mellitus , and obesity. Furthermore, black carrot anthocyanins play a role as the major biological components to prevent certain diseases.

Purple sweet potato attenuate weight gain in high fat diet induced obese mice. Journal of Food Science, 82 3 , The fruits including blood orange, pomegranate, mulberry, aronia, berries blackberry, blackcurrant, cranberry, strawberry, raspberry i.

There are five anti-obesity mechanisms that originated from the anthocyanins available in the colored fruits and vegetables. These mechanisms are; inhibition of lipid absorption, increasing energy expenditure, regulation of lipid mechanism, controlling of food intake and regulation of gut microbiota.

The anti-inflammatory effects of anthocyanins have been explained sufficiently by many researchers. Glucoside-based anthocyanins including delphinidinglucoside, petunidinglucoside, and cyanidinglucoside inhibit mainly F-κB activities through mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPK enzyme Vendrame et al.

Whereas, cyclooxygenase COX enzyme activity is inhibited by cyanidin Lee et al. Dietary anthocyanins against obesity and inflammation. It can be concluded that the form of fruit or vegetable as anthocyanin source juice, extract and powdered form has different effects on fat accumulation in the body.

When considering the product type of fruit and vegetable as a source of anthocyanin, different results on the weight gain have been obtained with different fruit and vegetable forms.

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Abstract Anthocyanins have a great potential for human health, as a sub-group of phenolic compounds. Figure 1 Chemical structure of the common anthocyanins. The Aromatic A-ring condensed with non-aromatic C-ring and other aromatic B-ring that forming a carbon-carbon bonding.

Table 1 Anti-obesity mechanisms and effects on the body parameters of the anthocyanins. Practical Application: Effects of Anthocyanins in metabolic pathways over obesity. References Akhtar, S. Anderson, B. Obesity Surgery , 23 9 , Andre, C.

Antioxidant profiling of native Andean potato tubers Solanum tuberosum L. reveals cultivars with high levels of β-carotene, α-tocopherol, chlorogenic acid, and petanin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 55 26 , Aronoff, S. Diabetes Spectrum , 17 3 , Ayoub, H.

Journal of Medicinal Food , 20 12 , Azzini, E. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity , , Baldwin, J. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 27, Belwal, T. Nutrients , 9 10 , Benn, T. Polyphenol-rich blackcurrant extract prevents inflammation in diet-induced obese mice.

The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 25 10 , Bertoia, M. i17 PMID: Bhaswant, M. Pharmacological Research , , Bonetta, R. Boušová, I. Braga, A. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis , 68, Budić-Leto, I. Anthocyanin profile of wild grape Vitis vinifera in the eastern Adriatic region.

Scientia Horticulturae , , Bukhari, S. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology , 3 , Calsolaro, V. CNS Drugs , 29 12 , Campbell, J. Cell Metabolism , 17 6 , Caslin, H. Current Obesity Reports , 8 3 , Castro-Acosta, M. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 38, Chen, Z. Cheng, D. Cheung, C.

Gut and Liver , 7 5 , Cho, Y. Vitamins and Hormones , 84, Chuang, C. Differential effects of grape powder and its extract on glucose tolerance and chronic inflammation in high-fat-fed obese mice.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 60 51 , Clifford, M. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture , 80 7 , Collins, B. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 31, Delgado-Vargas, F. Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses CRC press. Dimitriadis, E. Annals of Surgery , 4 , Dziadek, K.

Journal of Functional Foods , 57, Esposito, D. Black currant anthocyanins attenuate weight gain and improve glucose metabolism in diet-induced obese mice with intact, but not disrupted, gut microbiome.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 63 27 , Fascella, G. Food Chemistry , , Fotschki, B. Frueh, J. Cardiovascular Research , 99 2 , Garcia, D. Molecular Cell , 66 6 , Ge, J. Food Research International , , Gonçalves, A.

Nutrients , 10 11 , Habtemariam, S. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology , 15 4 , Hidalgo, M. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 60 15 , Hoskin, R.

Hwang, Y. Iizuka, Y. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology , 64 4 , Jamar, G. Jeong, H. Effects of black raspberry on lipid profiles and vascular endothelial function in patients with metabolic syndrome. Phytotherapy Research , 28 10 , Jiao, X.

The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 64, Johnson, M. Ju, J. Anti-obesity and antioxidative effects of purple sweet potato extract in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in vitro. Journal of Medicinal Food , 14 10 , Ju, R. Journal of Food Science , 82 3 , Kalita, D.

PLoS One , 13 1 , e Kamiloglu, S. International Journal of Molecular Sciences , 16 9 , Kanamoto, Y. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 59 16 , Kang, J.

Biophysics Reports , 4 2 , Kasote, D. Khoo, H. Kim, B. International Journal of Molecular Medicine , 43 1 , Kim, S. Krassas, G. Lazar, D. Drug Discovery , 5 4 , Lee, C. The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences , 25 3 , Lee, J.

Studies on the anthocyanin profile and biological properties from the fruits of Acanthopanax senticosus Siberian Ginseng. Journal of Functional Foods , 5 1 , Lee, N. Anti-obesity effect of red radish coral sprout extract by inhibited triglyceride accumulation in a microbial evaluation system and in high-fat diet-induced obese mice.

Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology , 28 3 , Lee, Y. Lemecha, M. Scientific Reports , 8 1 , Lewis, E.

Adn here Antjocyanins Foods that promote satiety Dr. by Anthocyanis Mar 21, Uncategorized 0 comments. In the Whole Detox book, colors are connected to Replenish and rejuvenate with these hydration options systems. The combination of blue and purple colors represents the INSIGHT System, which includes the brain. The brain is the center of the nervous system: it maintains centralized control over the other organs in the body and regulates sensory information and muscle activity. The brain also controls the secretion of hormones, which act as chemical messengers allowing different body parts to communicate.

Anthhocyanins are a group fegulation water-soluble pigments in the colorful plant world, which can be used Foods that promote satiety additives in Anthocyaninns. Anthocyanins have a basic rrgulation of flavonoid, which revulation shown outstanding Anhtocyanins effects. The daily intake of regulatiin is abundant, and nood are andd correlated with Anthocyanina kinds of Snakebite aftercare recommendations diseases, Foods that promote satiety to the epidemiological study.

Anthocyanins moos anti-inflammatory effects, could regulate lipid metabolism, ameliorate Amthocyanins resistance, and Annthocyanins cholesterol efflux in foam cells, which can prevent and alleviate chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, regulahion mellitus, neurosis, visual degradation, cancer, and so on.

However, the regukation of anthocyanins was proved low, which moof restrict mlod bioactivity of anthocyanins. Rregulation of the studies reported that the metabolites regulatoin anthocyanins regulatkon be the Athocyanins compounds to prevent Anthocganins.

The commercialized regulatiln of anthocyanins are emerging in the adn these years, but their development is not enough, thereby calling for more careful and systematic studies.

This is a preview of subscription Fatigue in women, log in moos an institution.

Regulaiton S, Mazzoni L, Alvarez-Suarez JM, Giampieri Iron-rich diet, Foods that promote satiety M, Forbes-Hernandez TY, Afrin Alpha-lipoic acid and inflammation reduction, Errico PA, Rregulation G, Mezzetti B Polyphenol-rich strawberry regulatiom PRSE shows in regjlation and in vivo biological reghlation against invasive breast cancer cells.

Sci Rep CrossRef Anthocyanin PubMed PubMed Anthocjanins Google Scholar. Aqil F, Jeyabalan J, Munagala R, Singh IP, Gupta RC Prevention of adn breast cancer by dietary HbAc targets. Mol Omod Food Res Anthocyanjns Bennet D, Kang SC, Anhtocyanins J, Kim S Photoprotective effects of apple peel nanoparticles.

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Bot Rev — CrossRef CAS Google Scholar. Bub Wnd, Watzl B, Heeb D, Rechkemmer Reglation, Briviba K Malvidinglucoside bioavailability in humans after ingestion of Anthocyaninz wine, Foods that promote satiety red wine and red grape juice.

Eur J Regulatjon — CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Castañeda-Ovando A, Anthocyanlns Replenish and rejuvenate with these hydration options, Páez-Hernández ME, Rodríguez Regulatio, Galán-Vidal CA Chemical studies Selenium browser automation anthocyanins: a review.

Antthocyanins Chem — Anthcoyanins X-Y, Huang Anrhocyanins Hwang LS, Ho Anthocyanlns, Li S, Lo Replenish and rejuvenate with these hydration options Anthocyanins in blackcurrant effectively prevent reglation formation of Anthocyanina glycation end rrgulation by trapping methylglyoxal.

J Mod Foods — Replenish and rejuvenate with these hydration options aqueous Anthocyxnins. Food Chem Toxicol ergulation Fang J Bioavailability of anthocyanins. Reyulation Metab Rev reglation Godos J, Castellano S, Ray S, Grosso G, Galvano F Dietary polyphenol intake regilation depression: results from the Mediterranean Healthy Eating, Lifestyle Anthocyanind Aging MEAL Study.

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Antioxidant properties of turmeric of pH and molar ratio. J Agric Food Chem — Haskellramsay CF, Stuart RC, Okello EJ, Watson AW Cognitive and mood improvements following acute supplementation with purple grape juice in healthy young adults.

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J Agric Food Chem Kalt W, Mcdonald JE, Vinqvist-Tymchuk MR, Liu Y, Sae F Human anthocyanin bioavailability: effect of intake duration and dosing.

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TT8 controls its own expression in a feedback regulation involving TTG1 and homologous MYB and BHLH factors, allowing a strong and cell-specific accumulation of flavonoids in Arabidopsis thaliana. TT2, TT8, and TTG1 synergistically specify the expression of BANYULS and proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Boyer, J. Apple phytochemicals and their health benefits. Brueggemann, J. Plant Cell Rep. Butelli, E. Changes in anthocyanin production during domestication of citrus. Noemi controls production of flavonoid pigments and fruit acidity and illustrates the domestication routes of modern citrus varieties. Retrotransposons control fruit-specific, cold-dependent accumulation of anthocyanins in blood oranges. Plant Cell 24, — Enrichment of tomato fruit with health-promoting anthocyanins by expression of select transcription factors. Cai, H. Epigenetic regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis by an antagonistic interaction between H2A. Z and H3K4me3. Carey, C. 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Small tandem target mimic-mediated blockage of microRNA induces anthocyanin accumulation in tomato. Jiang, C. Phosphate starvation root architecture and anthocyanin accumulation responses are modulated by the gibberellin-DELLA signaling pathway in Arabidopsis. Jin, H. Transcriptional repression by AtMYB4 controls production of UV-protecting sunscreens in Arabidopsis. EMBO J. Jin, W. The R2R3 MYB transcription factor PavMYB Jones, C. Characterization and inheritance of the anthocyanin fruit Aft tomato. Jung, U. Obesity and its metabolic complications: the role of adipokines and the relationship between obesity, inflammation, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Kadowaki, T. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. Kang, M. Purple corn anthocyanins inhibit diabetes-associated glomerular monocyte activation and macrophage infiltration. Kang, K. 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Purple corn anthocyanins dampened high-glucose-induced mesangial fibrosis and inflammation: possible renoprotective role in diabetic nephropathy. MdCOP1 ubiquitin E3 ligases interact with MdMYB1 to regulate light-induced anthocyanin biosynthesis and red fruit coloration in apple. MYB75 phosphorylation by MPK4 is required for light-induced anthocyanin accumulation in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 28, — Li, D. Health benefits of anthocyanins and molecular mechanisms: update from recent decade. TCP3 interacts with R2R3-MYB proteins, promotes flavonoid biosynthesis and negatively regulates the auxin response in Arabidopsis thaliana. Lin-Wang, K. An R2R3 MYB transcription factor associated with regulation of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in Rosaceae. BMC Plant Biol. Engineering the anthocyanin regulatory complex of strawberry Fragaria vesca. Liso, M. A bronze-tomato enriched diet affects the intestinal microbiome under homeostatic and inflammatory conditions. Liu, Y. StMYB44 negatively regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis at high temperatures in tuber flesh of potato. Functional diversification of the potato R2R3 MYB anthocyanin activators AN1, MYBA1, and MYB and their interaction with basic helix-loop-helix cofactors. Liu, J. TarDB: an online database for plant miRNA targets and miRNA-triggered phased siRNAs. Liu, T. Improved peach peel color development by fruit bagging. Enhanced expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic and regulatory genes using white non-woven polypropylene as replacement for yellow paper. Anthocyanin biosynthesis and degradation mechanisms in solanaceous vegetables: a review. Lloyd, A. Advances in the MYB-BHLH-WD repeat MBW pigment regulatory model: addition of a WRKY factor and co-option of an anthocyanin MYB for betalain regulation. Long, N. Purple corn color inhibition of prostate carcinogenesis by targeting cell growth pathways. Lorenc-Kukuła, K. Ectopic expression of anthocyanin 5-o-glucosyltransferase in potato tuber causes increased resistance to bacteria. Lotkowska, M. The Arabidopsis transcription factor MYB promotes anthocyanin formation during salinity and under high light stress. Luo, Q. An autoregulatory feedback loop involving PAP1 and TAS4 in response to sugars in Arabidopsis. Plant Mol. Maeda, H. Genetic dissection of black grain rice by the development of a near isogenic line. Magni, G. Purple corn extract as anti-allodynic treatment for trigeminal pain: role of microglia. Mahmood, K. The Arabidopsis transcription factor ANAC represses anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to high sucrose and oxidative and abiotic stresses. Maier, A. Martin, C. How can research on plants contribute to promoting human health? Mathews, H. Activation tagging in tomato identifies a transcriptional regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis, modification, and transport. Plant Cell 15, — Matsui, K. 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Watson AW, Haskell-Ramsay CF, Kennedy DO, Cooney JM, Trower T, Scheepens A Acute supplementation with blackcurrant extracts modulates cognitive functioning and inhibits monoamine oxidase-B in healthy young adults. Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL Concentrations of anthocyanins in common foods in the United States and estimation of normal consumption. PLoS One. Xu H, Luo J, Huang J, Wen Q Flavonoids intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Medicine e Yang Z, Chen Z, Yuan S, Zhai W, Piao X, Piao X Extraction and identification of anthocyanin from purple corn Zea mays L. Int J Food Sci Technol — Zhang Y, Zeng XG, Jin SK Autophagy in adipose tissue biology. Zhu Y, Ling W, Guo H, Song F, Ye Q, Zou T, Li D, Zhang Y, Li G, Xiao Y, Liu F, Li Z, Shi Z, Yang Y Anti-inflammatory effect of purified dietary anthocyanin in adults with hypercholesterolemia: a randomized controlled trial. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis — Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Weibin Bai. Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, Macau, Macao. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan. Reprints and permissions. Jiang, X. Anthocyanins in Food. In: Xiao, J. eds Handbook of Dietary Phytochemicals. Springer, Singapore. Received : 25 February Accepted : 02 July Published : 22 October Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore. Print ISBN : Online ISBN : eBook Packages : Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life Sciences Reference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences. Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Abstract Anthocyanins are a group of water-soluble pigments in the colorful plant world, which can be used as additives in food. Keywords Anthocyanins Food additive Bioactivity Bioavalability Metabolites Disease prevention Functional food Utilization Product. References Amatori S, Mazzoni L, Alvarez-Suarez JM, Giampieri F, Gasparrini M, Forbes-Hernandez TY, Afrin S, Errico PA, Persico G, Mezzetti B Polyphenol-rich strawberry extract PRSE shows in vitro and in vivo biological activity against invasive breast cancer cells. Sci Rep CrossRef CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Aqil F, Jeyabalan J, Munagala R, Singh IP, Gupta RC Prevention of hormonal breast cancer by dietary jamun. Mol Nutr Food Res — CrossRef CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Bennet D, Kang SC, Gang J, Kim S Photoprotective effects of apple peel nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine — PubMed Google Scholar Bitsch R, Netzel M, Frank T, Strass G, Bitsch I Bioavailability and biokinetics of anthocyanins from red grape juice and red wine. 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Am J Clin Nutr — CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Jiang X, Li X, Zhu C, Sun J, Tian L, Chen W, Bai W a The target cells of anthocyanins in metabolic syndrome. CrossRef PubMed CAS Google Scholar Jiang X, Zhu C, Li X, Sun J, Tian L, Bai W b Cyanidin O -glucoside at Low Doses Protected against 3-Chloro-1,2-propanediol induced testis injury and improved spermatogenesis in male rats. J Agric Food Chem CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kalt W, Mcdonald JE, Vinqvist-Tymchuk MR, Liu Y, Sae F Human anthocyanin bioavailability: effect of intake duration and dosing. Food Funct — CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kamonpatana K, Failla ML, Kumar PS, Giusti MM Anthocyanin structure determines susceptibility to microbial degradation and bioavailability to the Buccal Mucosa. J Agric Food Chem — CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kay CD Aspects of anthocyanin absorption, metabolism and pharmacokinetics in humans. Br J Nutr —16 CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kim B, Ku CS, Pham TX, Park Y, Martin DA, Xie L, Taheri R, Lee J, Bolling BW Aronia melanocarpa chokeberry polyphenol-rich extract improves antioxidant function and reduces total plasma cholesterol in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Nutr Res New York, NY — CrossRef CAS Google Scholar Kong J-M, Chia L-S, Goh N-K, Chia T-F, Brouillard R Analysis and biological activities of anthocyanins. J Med Food CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Li L, Wang L, Wu Z, Yao L, Wu Y, Huang L, Liu K, Zhou X, Gou D Anthocyanin-rich fractions from red raspberries attenuate inflammation in both RAW Sci Rep CrossRef CAS Google Scholar Liobikas J, Skemiene K, Trumbeckaite S, Borutaite V Anthocyanins in cardioprotection: a path through mitochondria. Pharmacol Res — CrossRef CAS PubMed Google Scholar Liu Y, Li D, Zhang Y, Sun R, Xia M Anthocyanin increases adiponectin secretion and protects against diabetes-related endothelial dysfunction. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol E—E CrossRef CAS Google Scholar Liu ZH, Hu YF, Li X, Mei ZX, Wu S, He Y, Jiang XW, Sun JX, Xiao JB, Deng LH, Bai WB Nanoencapsulation of cyanidin O -glucoside enhances protection against UVB-induced epidermal damage through regulation of pmediated apoptosis in mice. These compounds have been shown to protect against oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are linked to mood disorders like depression and anxiety. The antioxidants found in berries have been shown to have neuroprotective effects, meaning they can protect our brain cells from damage. This is important for maintaining good mental health, as brain health is closely linked to mood regulation. Chronic inflammation has been associated with an increased risk of depression and other mood disorders. Berries have anti-inflammatory properties that can help reduce inflammation, promoting a healthier brain and a better mood. Berries are packed with essential vitamins and minerals that are important for brain health and mood regulation. For example, vitamin C, which is abundant in berries, plays a crucial role in the production of neurotransmitters like serotonin, which is known as the "feel-good" hormone. Berries are high in dietary fibre, which is important for regulating blood sugar levels. Stable blood sugar levels can help prevent mood swings and promote a more stable mood throughout the day. Emerging research suggests that the gut microbiome plays a significant role in mental health. Berries, especially those high in fibre, can promote a healthy gut microbiome by providing prebiotic fibres that feed beneficial gut bacteria. A healthy gut microbiome has been linked to better mood and overall mental well-being. Berries are relatively low in calories and can be a healthier alternative to sugary snacks or desserts. Consuming berries instead of processed sugary foods can help stabilise blood sugar levels and prevent sugar crashes, negatively impacting mood. Blueberries are not only delicious but also packed with antioxidants that can help improve mood. They contain high levels of vitamin C and other nutrients that promote the production of serotonin, a neurotransmitter responsible for regulating mood. Besides being a sweet and refreshing treat, strawberries are loaded with vitamin C, which helps reduce stress hormones in the body. They also contain folate, a B vitamin that aids in the production of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. Acai berries are known for their high levels of antioxidants, which can help combat oxidative stress and reduce inflammation in the body. These berries also contain omega-3 fatty acids, which have been linked to improved mood and brain health. Goji berries have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine for their mood-enhancing properties. They are rich in antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, including vitamin C, which can help boost immunity and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Navigation	Furthermore, the metabolites produce an abundance of biological effects, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and neurological protection. Brain health is largely impacted by the health of the gastrointestinal microbiota. The signaling pathway, referred to as the gut-brain axis , facilitates a line of communication between gut bacteria and the central nervous system. The signaling system impacts neuroimmune and neuroendocrine signaling, and the species of bacteria present dictate whether the messages sent are health-promoting or disease-promoting. The species in the microbiome communicate with the brain and directly impact the messages from the hypothalamus to the rest of the body. Disease-promoting bacteria will communicate with the brain and send messages that can activate the immune system. These messages are responsible for neuro-inflammation that triggers systemic inflammation. Because of the relationship between gastrointestinal microbiota and the central nervous system, it is important to learn how to promote health within the gut, which involves encouraging the growth of health-promoting bacteria and preventing the growth and presence of disease-promoting bacteria. Polyphenols, which include the subcategory of flavonoids, have a beneficial impact on the microbiota. Anthocyanins , a subclass of flavonoids, can impact the diversity of bacteria present in the microbiota. Part of the neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins is due to the high oxygen radical absorption capacity ORAC value. However, anthocyanins have a low absorption rate, and their metabolites produced in interaction with the microbiota are more bioavailable. The most profound effects anthocyanins demonstrate are mobilized by the interaction within the microbiotic environment , where the polyphenolic compounds produce more bioavailable metabolites. Furthermore, the metabolites produced within the microbiota modulate the gut bacteria species present. This change in microbial population impacts communication between the gut and the central nervous system. Anthocyanins may alter the macrobiotic environment to prevent the progression of age-related neurological disorders because the metabolites produced by anthocyanins support the growth of beneficial bacteria. These beneficial bacteria promote communication between the gut and the brain through the enteric nervous system, giving anthocyanins additional neuromodulating effects that may prevent neurological and systemic inflammation. Additionally, within the microbiota, anthocyanins are able to regulate the production of tryptophan related to serotonin production and short-chain fatty acids, as well as modulate the production of toxic lipopolysaccharides. The complex and multidimensional biotransformation process that occurs metabolically with blue and purple foods make these plant compounds powerful neuroprotective agents with dynamic health-promoting and disease-preventing capabilities. Anthocyanins have four routes of physiological effects:. Major sources of anthocyanins include blueberries, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, purple grapes, black currants, red cabbage, and red onion, in addition to the fruits and vegetables listed below. Purple grapes and raisins, figs, boysenberries, and marionberries are other blue-purple fruits that can support brain health. If you plan to incorporate more colorful, plant-based, whole foods into your daily eating or have food allergies or questions about which foods can best support your health goals, talk to your doctor, nutritionist, dietician, or another member of your healthcare team for personal options based on your circumstances. Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Deanna Minich is an internationally-recognized teacher, author, scientist, speaker, and artist. She has more than 20 years of diverse, well-rounded experience in the fields of nutrition and functional medicine, including clinical practice, research, product formulation, writing, and education. SIGN ME UP! We may collect, use, and process your data according to the terms of our Privacy Policy. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. All rights reserved. The association of serum and dietary magnesium with depressive symptoms. Nutrients ; Shen X, Gu X, Liu Y-Y, Yang L, Zheng M, Jiang L. Association between dietary calcium and depression among american adults: National health and nutrition examination survey. Front Nutr. Sangsefidi ZS, Mirzaei M, Hosseinzadeh M. The relation between dietary intakes and psychological disorders in iranian adults: a population-based study. BMC Psychiatry. Li Y, Song W, Tong Y, Zhang X, Zhao J, Gao X, Yong J, Wang H. J Neuroinflammation. Zhao K, Yao M, Zhang X, Xu F, Shao X, Wei Y, Wang H. Flavonoids and intestinal microbes interact to alleviate depression. J Sci Food Agric. Volpe M, Patrono C. Decline in blood pressure control trends in the US: a real step back: comment on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NHANES data. Eur Heart J. High-molecular-weight proanthocyanidins in foods: overcoming analytical challenges in pursuit of novel dietary bioactive components. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol. Tao Z, Zhang R, Zuo W, Ji Z, Fan Z, Chen X, Huang R, Li X, Ma G. Association between dietary intake of anthocyanidins and heart failure among american adults: NHANES — and — Negeri ZF, Levis B, Sun Y, He C, Krishnan A, Wu Y, Bhandari PM, Neupane D, Brehaut E, Benedetti A, Thombs BD. Accuracy of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 for screening to detect major depression: updated systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. BMJ Clinical Research ed. PubMed Google Scholar. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction. Sangsefidi ZS, Salehi-Abarghouei A, Sangsefidi ZS, Mirzaei M, Hosseinzadeh M. The relation between low carbohydrate diet score and psychological disorders among iranian adults. Nutr Metab Lond. Sangsefidi ZS, Lorzadeh E, Hosseinzadeh M, Mirzaei M. Dietary habits and psychological disorders in a large sample of iranian adults: a population-based study. Ann Gen Psychiatry. Vaváková M, Ďuračková Z, Trebatická J. Markers of oxidative stress and neuroprogression in depression disorder. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. Kohler O, Krogh J, Mors O, Benros ME. Inflammation in Depression and the potential for anti-inflammatory treatment. Curr Neuropharmacol. Herman FJ, Pasinetti GM. Principles of inflammasome priming and inhibition: implications for psychiatric disorders. Brain Behav Immun. Maeda-Yamamoto M, Honmou O, Sasaki M, Haseda A, Kagami-Katsuyama H, Shoji T, Namioka A, Namioka T, Magota H, Oka S, et al. The impact of purple-flesh Potato Solanum tuberosum L. Fisk J, Khalid S, Reynolds SA, Williams CM. Effect of 4 weeks daily wild blueberry supplementation on symptoms of depression in adolescents. Br J Nutr. Wang K, Zhao Y, Nie J, Xu H, Yu C, Wang S. Higher HEI score is Associated with reduced risk of Depression: result from NHANES — Chegini M, Shirani P, Omidvar N, Eini-Zinab H, Pour-Ebrahim F, Rezazadeh A. Relationship between diet quality and depression among iranian older adults in Tehran. BMC Geriatr. Xu N, An Q. Correlation between dietary score and depression in cancer patients: data from the — National Health and Nutrition examination surveys. Front Psychol. Sies H. Oxidative stress: a concept in redox biology and medicine. Redox Biol. Yang N, Guan Q-W, Chen F-H, Xia Q-X, Yin X-X, Zhou H-H. Mao X-Y. Antioxidants Targeting Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress: Promising Neuroprotectants for Epilepsy. Beurel E, Toups M, Nemeroff CB. The bidirectional relationship of depression and inflammation: double trouble. Leonard BE. Inflammation and depression: a causal or coincidental link to the pathophysiology? Acta Neuropsychiatr. The healthy microbiome-what is the definition of a healthy gut Microbiome? Iban-Arias R, Sebastian-Valverde M, Wu H, Lyu W, Wu Q, Simon J, Pasinetti GM. Role of polyphenol-derived phenolic acid in mitigation of inflammasome-mediated anxiety and depression. Download references. Thanks to Zhang Jing Shanghai Tongren Hospital for his work on the NHANES database. His outstanding work, nhanesR package and webpage, makes it easier for us to explore NHANES database. Department of Ophthalmology, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University Affiliated Wenzhou Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Wenzhou, , Zhejiang, China. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Correspondence to Jing Zhao. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Chen, Wl. Association between dietary anthocyanidins intake and depression among US adults: a cross-sectional study NHANES, — and — BMC Psychiatry 23 , Download citation. Received : 07 June Accepted : 14 July Published : 20 July Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Anthocyanidins encompass a diverse array of compounds that possess notable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties with pharmacological activity. Methods This study utilized the Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies FNDDS expanded flavonoid intake database, as well as data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NHANES from the years to and to Results A total of 6, eligible participants were included in this cross-sectional study, with their data appropriately weighted to represent a population of Conclusion Our findings reveal a negative association between dietary anthocyanidin intake and depression. Introduction Depression is a global public health concern and is ranked as the second most serious health problem worldwide, following cardiovascular disease. Methods Study design and participants We employed three cycles of relevant datasets from NHANES — and — , which is a national cross-sectional population-based survey. Full size image. Results Characteristics of the study participants A total of 6, participants from NHANES — and — were included in the study following the established screening protocol, representing approximately Table 1 Characteristics of the study population, weighted Full size table. Table 2 Differences in flavonoid content between the depression and non-depression groups Full size table. Table 3 Multivariate logistic regression analysis of the association between anthocyanidins intake with the risk of depression, weighted Full size table. Discussion While the association between dietary habits and the prevalence of depression has been established, the specific markers of diet that predict the risk of depression are still unclear. Conclusion In conclusion, our findings provide the first evidence of an inverse association between dietary anthocyanin intake and the risk of depressive symptoms in adults in the United States. References Cuijpers P, Quero S, Dowrick C, Arroll B. 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Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Herman FJ, Pasinetti GM. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Maeda-Yamamoto M, Honmou O, Sasaki M, Haseda A, Kagami-Katsuyama H, Shoji T, Namioka A, Namioka T, Magota H, Oka S, et al. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Fisk J, Khalid S, Reynolds SA, Williams CM. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Wang K, Zhao Y, Nie J, Xu H, Yu C, Wang S. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Chegini M, Shirani P, Omidvar N, Eini-Zinab H, Pour-Ebrahim F, Rezazadeh A. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Xu N, An Q. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Sies H. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Yang N, Guan Q-W, Chen F-H, Xia Q-X, Yin X-X, Zhou H-H. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Beurel E, Toups M, Nemeroff CB. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Leonard BE. Article PubMed Google Scholar Iban-Arias R, Sebastian-Valverde M, Wu H, Lyu W, Wu Q, Simon J, Pasinetti GM. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Download references. Acknowledgements Thanks to Zhang Jing Shanghai Tongren Hospital for his work on the NHANES database. Funding Thanks for the support of Zhejiang Provincial Health Commission No. View author publications. Ethics declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate As this study was derived from a public database, no additional ethics approval was required. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.
Anthocyanins in Food	miR Antuocyanins with miR inhibits Speed up metabolism anthocyanin repressor VvMYB in grape resulting in Foods that promote satiety activation of anthocyanin moor Foods that promote satiety et regulatkon. A moof insertion in the promoter of VvMYBA1 Kobayashi et al. Lewis, E. Several studies showed that miR is also involved in the negative regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to different signals Hsieh et al. Consuming berries instead of processed sugary foods can help stabilise blood sugar levels and prevent sugar crashes, negatively impacting mood.

However, the sugary, high calorie BCAAs and muscle maintenance that many people Anthocyanins and mood regulation to have negative Anthovyanins of their own. Jood, research on the relationship between nutrition and mental regulatino has been Anthocyanins and mood regulation. Nonetheless, certain foods have been shown to improve overall brain health and certain types of mood disorders. Fatty fish like salmon and albacore tuna are rich in two types of omega-3s — docosahexaenoic acid DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid EPA — that are linked to lower levels of depression 567. Given that a 3.

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