Enhanced brain function -
We present data from studies on two groups of adolescents [i. Overall, the length of the training period across studies was short-term, ranging from 8 to 12 sessions delivered over one to two months in 45 to 60 min. duration, with each study protocol being identical for all participants within the trial.
The Gist reasoning training also referred to as gist training is a strategy- rather than content-based program. The protocol entails three core strategies: strategic attention, integrated reasoning , and innovation summarized in Table 1 , delineated in a training manual, and defined in more detail elsewhere e.
The strategies facilitate cognitive control and depth of encoding to facilitate knowledge acquisition and creation. The strategy instruction is hierarchical and dynamically interdependent, with each strategy building on previous strategies, and involves practice that encourages integrating all steps when tackling mental activities both inside and outside of training.
In this study, middle-school students 8th graders were randomly assigned to one of three training protocols, either the Gist reasoning, or one of two control groups, i. The trainings were delivered over 9 class periods lasting 45 min over four weeks.
The three groups were comparable in age, gender, memory, and cognitive abilities at baseline. Outcomes comparing pre- to post- training performances were scored by researchers blinded to individuals and group identity. Results revealed that gist-trained students improved ability to abstract novel meanings from lengthy classroom-type texts.
Additionally, these gist-trained students showed significant improvement in memory for facts, a skill not targeted in training. The New learning group did not show any significant gains. These findings suggest that gist reasoning strategies may have a broader impact on learning that improves deeper understanding of information encountered beyond shallow learning of isolated facts.
In a subsequent study Motes et al. Participants in the Gist training group vs. The findings revealed that participants in the Gist group showed significant improvement in inhibition i. Furthermore, those in the Gist trained group showed EEG changes suggestive of improved processing efficiency, as reflected by significant reduction in P3 no-go amplitude post-training compared to pre-training.
No such differences were observed in the Wait-list controls. Overall, both the behavioral findings and the electrophysiological data across these two studies suggest that Gist training appears to enhance inhibitory responses both at the behavioral and neural level in typically developing middle school children.
However, these findings have to be further validated using additional procedures e. The benefits of Gist training vs. Participants received one-on-one training delivered in eight sessions of 45 min duration over a four week period.
The text materials for the Memory training were largely the same content as used in the Gist protocol. The Gist-trained group also showed enhanced performance on cognitive measures for memory for facts, working memory Digit Span backwards and Letter-Number Sequencing—WAIS III or WISC IV , and inhibition Color Word Interference—D-KEFS.
None of these latter cognitive skills were specifically targeted during training, suggesting spill-over effects of the Gist training to untrained cognitive domains. The Memory trained group's performance on memory for facts approached significance; however, results failed to show significant gains in domains of abstracting meaning, working memory, inhibition, or other cognitive areas.
Taken together, evidence from these three studies implicates the potential to enhance cognitive performance in areas of cognitive control in typically developing teens and teens with TBI, beyond the traditional treatment phase of 3 months post injury.
Augmenting cognitive performance in normally developing populations and individuals at chronic stages post brain injury represents newer and promising areas of investigation. The Gist-trained group exhibited significant gains in abstracting meanings from complex information as compared to the New learning training group.
Moreover, the Gist-trained group showed significant enhancement on measures of immediate memory Digit Span Forward—WAIS-III , executive functions of working memory Letter Number-Sequence—WAIS III and Daneman and Carpenter listening span and cognitive switching Color-Word Interference task—D-KEFS , and non-verbal reasoning Matrix Reasoning—WAIS III.
None of these latter cognitive processes were specifically targeted during training, adding further evidence of generalized benefits from Gist training. Furthermore, this group reported significant improvement in daily life skills GOS-E, Functional Status Examination, Community Integration Questionnaire , such as increased socialization e.
These reported real life gains from Gist training are not likely due to placebo effects since both groups believed they were receiving the experimental training. These training-related gains were maintained at 6-month follow-up.
Despite comparable levels of active and engaged learning, the New Learning group failed to show significant gains on any of the performance measures. This study compared immediate benefits of Gist training vs.
New learning on cognition in individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment MCI in a random assignment design Mudar et al. Groups were comparable in age, Mini-Mental State Examination MMSE and episodic memory scores at baseline.
Both groups received 8 h of training over a period of 4 weeks. We found differential cognitive gains between the two groups. Significant improvement was observed in the Gist-trained group on measures of abstract meaning, strategic attention, memory immediate and delayed recall Logical Memory subtest-WMS III and abstract verbal reasoning Similarities-WAIS III.
In contrast, participants in the New learning group showed significant improvements in remembering facts on an experimental text memory measure and on the Sorting test D-KEFS. These findings suggest that both trainings offered some benefit for those with a progressive neurologic disease; however, Gist training offered broader benefits.
Given the lack of pharmacological treatment options in slowing cognitive deterioration in pre-clinical stages of dementia, one current focus is on identifying non-pharmacological options e.
Although maintenance of gains from Gist training needs to be studied in larger trials, even short-term increases in cognitive performance offer a glimmer of hope. Different doses and more frequent time intervals of cognitive training needs to be examined to harness optimal benefits in terms of maintaining cognitive capacity and slowing decline.
The short-term effects of i. Individuals were assessed at baseline, at midpoint and immediately post-training. The Gist-trained group showed generalized cognitive gains consistent with an earlier pilot study in healthy older adults in which participants improved in cognitive switching Trail Making Test Part B , concept abstraction Similarities-WAIS III , and fluency COWAT letter fluency Anand et al.
We examined changes in large-scale brain networks in terms of brain blood flow CBF and functional and structural connectivity, in addition to the relationship between improved cognitive performance and brain changes. Results revealed significant increases in global CBF total brain as well as increased regional CBF measures as measured with Arterial Spin Labeling in two distinct and major brain networks tied to higher-order cognition, namely the Default Mode Network DMN and the Central Executive Network CEN.
Specifically, the DMN and CEN have been associated with top-down, cognitive control processes Bressler and Menon, We also found corroborating patterns of increased functional connectivity in these very same major brain networks as the increased CBF Figure 1.
Additionally, we found significantly increased structural connectivity as measured with diffusion tensor imaging DTI in the left uncinate fasciculus—the white matter tract that connects the middle temporal lobe to the superior medial frontal gyri after 12 weeks of training. The finding of increased white matter integrity in this select brain region perhaps suggests that some degree of atrophy at the level of white matter tracts in healthy aging may be reversible through Gist training.
The expansion of the uncinate is intriguing and perhaps suggests that this pathway plays a role in synthesizing new learning—linking the memory center left middle temporal region to a brain region that is implicated in abstraction skills e.
Figure 1. This figure illustrates the convergence of neural plasticity findings in the cognitive training vs. control group across cerebral blood flow, functional connectivity, and structural DTI changes implicating functional brain changes more frequent and rapid than structural plasticity comparing changes at T2 and T3 to baseline T1 measures.
A Results of CBF voxel-based comparison superimposed on an average CBF map of all participants for linear and quadratic interaction contrasts. B The average functional connectivity maps i. C Mean increase in fcMRI z-scores left column and mean change in absolute CBF right column are shown for DMN and CEN across time periods.
D A representative participant's uncinate fasciculus green is overlaid on his fractional anisotropy map from DTI Chapman et al. Whereas a handful of studies have reported cognitive gains and brain changes in response to cognitive training Nyberg et al.
We acknowledge these findings are preliminary and should be interpreted with caution since the gist training group was compared to a wait-list control group. Nonetheless, the significant relation between brain changes and cognitive improvement provides impetus that the brain gains from gist-training may be possible and warrant further study with active controls.
This synopsis of key findings across studies in normal and clinical populations indicates Gist reasoning training has the potential to improve cognitive performance beyond skills trained with the likelihood of enhancing underlying neural systems, as well as real life functional abilities.
The significant improvements were achieved after relatively short-term training periods. The gains were documented in pseudo-randomly assigned trials comparing the experimental Gist reasoning training to control groups using objective measures.
We postulate that top-down strategy-based cognitive training may yield efficient and easily adoptable methods of mental practice to achieve broad-based benefits.
To guide future cognitive training trials, we offer several explanations why Gist reasoning training may augment higher-order executive functions. Second, gist reasoning requires an active process of meaning-abstraction where the incoming details are integrated within one's repository of world knowledge by a conscious, controlled manipulation of input into précised ideas Johnson-Laird, ; Van Dijk et al.
This integration of incoming data with prior knowledge necessitates activation of top-down processing with enhanced depth of encoding compared to simple representation of literal input.
Third, gist reasoning is a practical skill that the majority of people from adolescence to old age can implement and practice throughout their daily normal mental activities Lloyd and Reyna, ; Gamino et al. Examples of gist reasoning are meaning-creations illustrated by generating interpretations, themes, take-home messages, synopses, or generalized statements, to mention a few forms.
Fourth, accruing evidence suggests that such a top-down approach to processing engages broad-based brain networks Gazzaley et al. We propose that when the neural activity of major brain networks is increased through complex and meaningful cognitive activities involving gist reasoning, the outcomes may be manifested at multiple levels of cognitive performance and neural health.
Immense potential exists to augment cognitive performance and enhance neural systems through top-down cognitive activity, such as gist reasoning.
Future research opportunities should combine multiple approaches simultaneously from the growing armamentaria shown to enhance cognitive performance and brain functions to examine additive benefits. The current reported benefits from Gist reasoning training motivate future trials where the gist training protocol is combined with methods such as short-term meditation Tang et al.
Also critical is examining subjects' motivational level as a factor. Expanded efforts to identify combinatorial protocols that strengthen cognitive performance and recoup losses will be of major public health significance, with the ultimate goal to more fully harness the brain's capacity to be strengthened in health, disease, and injury.
This work was supported by grant from the National Institute of Health RC1-AG, RNS, RAG, NICHD RHD , Department of Defense W81XWH and by grants from the T. Boone Pickens Foundation, the RGK foundation, the Lyda Hill Foundation, Dallas Foundation, and Dee Wyly Distinguished University Endowment.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors thank Jacquelyn Gamino, Lori Cook, Asha Vas, Mike Motes, Molly Keebler, Audette Rackley, Jennifer Zientz, Erin Venza, Hsueh-Sheng Chiang, Justin Eroh, Ali Perez, and the rest of the cognitive training team for their contribution to the research discussed in this perspective.
Differences are also seen in the degree to which men and women, those more and less familiar with this idea and those with higher and lower levels of religious commitment think about whether this is something they would want. Still, no more than a third of Americans in any of these groups say they would want a brain chip implant for this purpose themselves if it were available.
And the youngest and oldest adults are about equally likely to say they would want a brain chip implant after controlling for factors such as religious commitment, education and gender.
See the Appendix for more details. Similar patterns by gender, familiarity and religious commitment are also seen in views of the other two types of human enhancement in the survey: using gene editing for babies to enhance health and in the potential use of robotic exoskeletons with built-in artificial intelligence systems to enhance physical strength.
There is a long history of efforts to develop tools and techniques that would improve human abilities. However, there are sizable differences in views on this question by religious commitment and across religious groups. Asked to think about possible societal impacts from the widespread use of brain chips for improved cognitive function, the public sees both pros and cons.
However, on balance, potential negative impacts resonate more strongly with the public than positive ones. About eight-in-ten U.
Still, these majorities are smaller than the shares who see either negative impact as likely to happen, and few about one-in-ten say either of these positive impacts would definitely happen. On balance, Americans expect that the widespread use of brain chips would have a negative impact on the issue of economic inequality.
Three-in-ten say the use of computer chip implants in the brain would not affect economic inequality much. In all three instances, very small shares say these potential problems would happen rarely or never.
When it comes to who should play a role setting standards for how computer chip implants in the brain are used, Americans place medical doctors and the people getting the chip implants at the top of the list.
When asked to consider government regulation and brain chip implants, Americans are roughly divided over whether they think government would go too far or not far enough.
One example of potential regulatory measures: Some states across the country have preemptively passed laws banning employers from requiring their employees to have microchips or other implanted devices, citing privacy and other concerns.
While Americans see a number of potential downsides to the widespread use of computer chip implants for enhancement, majorities see conditions that could make the widespread use of brain chip implants more acceptable.
About six-in-ten U. Brain chip implants are currently in use and development for a variety of purposes, apart from their potential use to enhance how people process information. The survey finds broad support for the use of brain chip implants for therapeutic applications.
Keeping your brain healthy is essential to living a long and healthy life. Use it or lose it—your brain, that is. Our brain changes with age, and mental function changes along with it. But cognitive impairment is not inevitable.
Keeping your brain healthy is essential for living a long and full life. The following eight tips are easy ways to keep your brain healthy and functioning well. Reading, playing cards, putting together a jigsaw puzzle, playing crossword puzzles or Sudoku, or completing word searches are easy ways of boosting memory and focus.
Experiment with things that require manual dexterity and mental efforts, such as drawing, painting, and other crafts. Try using your non-dominant hand for things like brushing teeth or eating.
High-intensity and moderate-intensity aerobic exercise are not just good for your heart. Exercise improves your mood and cardiac function, reduces stress, and makes you more mentally alert. Read more about the benefits of exercise. Eating healthy—lots of fruit, vegetables, healthy oils, fish and minimizing junk food and fatty meats—is critical for brain health.
Vegetables, such as broccoli, spinach, tomatoes, and some berries, improve memory and overall brain function. Omega-3 fatty acids found in oily fish and some grains help prevent inflammation, preserve cognitive function, and prevent depression, stress and anxiety. Protein contains high levels of amino acids, which in turn cause neurons to produce neurotransmitters associated with mental alertness.
New research shows little risk Enhanced brain function infection Enhanced brain function Enhancdd biopsies. Discrimination at work is linked btain high blood pressure. Icy fingers and toes: Poor circulation or Raynaud's phenomenon? Moderate-intensity exercise can help improve your thinking and memory in just six months. Exercise benefits health in so many ways.Enhanced brain function -
Moreover, CMPT, including mindfulness meditation, are an interesting target as they are generally harmless, inexpensive, and easy to implement on both clinical face-to-face setting and using virtual tools.
Consequently, they are actionable and accessible, reducing inequality across the population. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study. Jessen F, et al. A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
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Toward a theory-based specification of non-pharmacological treatments in aging and dementia: Focused reviews and methodological recommendations. Epub Nov Poisnel G, et al. The Age-Well randomized controlled trial of the Medit-Ageing European project: Effect of meditation or foreign language training on brain and mental health in older adults.
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Front Psychol. Stephens JA, Berryhill ME. Talk with your health care team if you or a loved one suspects you have sleep apnea. Your diet plays a large role in your brain health. Consider following a Mediterranean diet, which emphasizes plant-based foods, whole grains, fish and healthy fats, such as olive oil.
It incorporates less red meat and salt than a typical American diet. Studies show people who closely follow a Mediterranean diet are less likely to have Alzheimer's disease than people who don't follow the diet.
Further research is needed to determine which parts of the diet help brain function the most. However, we know that omega fatty acids found in extra-virgin olive oil and other healthy fats are vital for your cells to function correctly, appear to decrease your risk of coronary artery disease, increase mental focus and slow cognitive decline in older adults.
Your brain is similar to a muscle — you need to use it or lose it. There are many things that you can do to keep your brain in shape, such as doing crossword puzzles or Sudoku, reading, playing cards or putting together a jigsaw puzzle. Consider it cross-training your brain.
Incorporate different types of activities to increase the effectiveness. Most health care teams don't recommend the paid brain-training programs available. These programs often overpromise results or focus on memorization skills that aren't useful in everyday life. Your brain can get just as good of a workout through reading or challenging yourself with puzzles.
Finally, don't watch too much TV, as that is a passive activity and does little to stimulate your brain. Social interaction helps ward off depression and stress , which can contribute to memory loss. Look for opportunities to connect with loved ones, friends and others , especially if you live alone.
Throughout our lives, our brains are changing; new neurons or nerve cells, these use electrical impulses and chemical signals to act as messengers between different regions in our brain and between our brain and body and synapses connections between neurons that allow for the sending of information continue to develop as we age, accumulate new experiences and accrue more knowledge into our mental piggy-bank.
Actions we take can affect the development of synapses and lead to cognitive enhancement. According to a report by the Global Council on Brain Health, continuing to actively develop our cognition through diverse and engaging activities can improve a range of brain functions.
The National Institute on Aging , a leader in healthy-aging research, states that diverse lifestyle changes focused on enhancing cognitive development, may improve memory, concentration, information processing, and motor function.
In a recent report from the World Health Organization, an estimated 55 million people are currently living with dementia. In addition, the WHO also predicts that this number will rise to 78 million by and million by While research is still underway to determine if focus on cognitive enhancement can prevent dementia later in life, performing stimulating and diverse activities with consistency during our lifetime has been shown to delay the onset of dementia by five years.
One of the most well studied activities that enhance our cognition is physical exercise. Physical exercise stimulates the production of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor BDNF , a hormone that supports neuronal health and vitality and stimulates formation of synapses between neurons the basis of memory.
Regular exercise leads to epigenetic changes in the genes that code for the manufacture of BDNF, so that more BDNF is produced over time. These epigenetic changes can last a lifetime if exercise is and ongoing part of your life and lead to a healthier brain into older age.
Physical exercise also stimulates the release of neurotransmitters that are involved in regulating mood and attention. Increased levels of norepinephrine and dopamine may be responsible for enhanced concentration and learning observed in the hours immediately after exercise.
November 30, Healthy You. Brakn your Enhanced brain function braij is essential to living a long and healthy life. Use it or lose it—your brain, that is. Our brain changes with age, and mental function changes along with it. But cognitive impairment is not inevitable.
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