Athletic performance nutrition -
So, regular intake of carbohydrate-rich foods can be important in this case to keep stores topped up. The correct food choices can help ensure the body has enough energy for activity, as well as help aid recovery.
Starchy foods are an important source of carbohydrates in our diet. Wholegrain varieties also provide fibre, and a range of vitamins and minerals including B vitamins, iron, calcium and folate. Find out more about this topic on our pages on starchy foods, sugar and fibre. The amount of carbohydrate you need will depend on the frequency, type, duration and intensity of physical activity you do.
Competitive sports people and athletes will likely require more carbohydrates than an average gym user to match the intensity of their activity level. If you are active at around the current recommended levels minutes of moderate activity or 75 minutes of high intensity activity plus two sessions of muscle strengthening activities per week , then you can follow general healthy eating guidance to base meals on starchy carbohydrates, choosing wholegrain and higher fibre options where possible.
For information about portion sizes of starchy foods you can use our Get portion wise! portion size guide. At this level of activity, it is unlikely you will need to consume extra carbohydrates by eating more or by using products like sports drinks or other carbohydrate supplements, and these can be counterproductive if you are trying to control your weight as they will contribute extra calories.
Sports drinks also contain sugars, which can damage teeth. Regardless of your level of activity, you should try not to meet your requirements by packing your entire carbohydrate intake into one meal.
Spread out your intake over breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks that fit around planned exercise. For athletes and individuals who are recreationally active to a higher level such as training for a marathon , consuming additional carbohydrate may be beneficial for performance.
Athletes can benefit from having some carbohydrate both before and after exercise to ensure adequate carbohydrate at the start of training and to replenish glycogen stores post exercise. In longer duration, high intensity exercise minutes or more , such as a football match or a marathon, consuming some carbohydrate during exercise can also improve performance, for example in the form of a sports drink.
Estimated carbohydrate needs are outlined below and depend on the intensity and duration of the exercise sessions International Olympics Committee :.
For example, from this guidance, someone who weighs 70kg doing light activity would need g carbohydrate per day whereas if they were training at moderate to high intensity for 2 hours a day, they would need g carbohydrate per day.
Protein is important in sports performance as it can boost glycogen storage, reduce muscle soreness and promote muscle repair. For those who are active regularly, there may be benefit from consuming a portion of protein at each mealtime and spreading protein intake out throughout the day.
As some high protein foods can also be high in saturated fat, for example fatty meats or higher fat dairy products, it is important to choose lower fat options, such as lean meats.
Most vegans get enough protein from their diets, but it is important to consume a variety of plant proteins to ensure enough essential amino acids are included. This is known as the complementary action of proteins. More information on vegetarian and vegan diets is available on our page on this topic.
Whilst there may be a benefit in increasing protein intakes for athletes and those recreationally active to a high level, the importance of high protein diets is often overstated for the general population. It is a common misconception that high protein intakes alone increase muscle mass and focussing too much on eating lots of protein can mean not getting enough carbohydrate, which is a more efficient source of energy for exercise.
It is important to note that high protein intakes can increase your energy calorie intake, which can lead to excess weight gain. The current protein recommendations for the general population are 0.
If you are participating in regular sport and exercise like training for a running or cycling event or lifting weights regularly, then your protein requirements may be slightly higher than the general sedentary population, to promote muscle tissue growth and repair.
For strength and endurance athletes, protein requirements are increased to around 1. The most recent recommendations for athletes from the American College of Sports Medicine ACSM also focus on protein timing, not just total intake, ensuring high quality protein is consumed throughout the day after key exercise sessions and around every 3—5 hours over multiple meals, depending on requirements.
In athletes that are in energy deficit, such as team sport players trying to lose weight gained in the off season, there may be a benefit in consuming protein amounts at the high end, or slightly higher, than the recommendations, to reduce the loss of muscle mass during weight loss.
Timing of protein consumption is important in the recovery period after training for athletes. Between 30 minutes and 2 hours after training, it is recommended to consume g of protein alongside some carbohydrate. A whey protein shake contains around 20g of protein, which you can get from half a chicken breast or a small can of tuna.
For more information on protein supplements, see the supplements section. To date, there is no clear evidence to suggest that vegetarian or vegan diets impact performance differently to a mixed diet, although it is important to recognise that whatever the dietary pattern chosen, it is important to follow a diet that is balanced to meet nutrient requirements.
More research is needed, to determine whether vegetarian or vegan diets can help athletic performance. More plant-based diets can provide a wide variety of nutrients and natural phytochemicals, plenty of fibre and tend to be low in saturated fat, salt and sugar. Fat is essential for the body in small amounts, but it is also high in calories.
The type of fat consumed is also important. Studies have shown that replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat in the diet can reduce blood cholesterol, which can lower the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Fat-rich foods usually contain a mixture of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids but choosing foods that contain higher amounts of unsaturated fat and less saturated fat, is preferable as most of us eat too much saturated fat.
Find more information on fat on our pages on this nutrient. If I am doing endurance training, should I be following low carbohydrate, high fat diets? Carbohydrate is important as an energy source during exercise. Having very low intakes of carbohydrate when exercising can cause low energy levels, loss of concentration, dizziness or irritability.
Because carbohydrate is important for providing energy during exercise, there is a benefit in ensuring enough is consumed. This is especially for high-intensity exercise where some studies have shown that performance is reduced when carbohydrate intakes are low. Some studies in specific exercise scenarios such as lower intensity training in endurance runners, have found beneficial effects of low carbohydrate diets on performance.
However, these results have not been consistent and so at the moment we do not have enough evidence to show that low-carbohydrate diets can benefit athletic performance. Water is essential for life and hydration is important for health, especially in athletes and those who are physically active, who will likely have higher requirements.
Drinking enough fluid is essential for maximising exercise performance and ensuring optimum recovery. Exercising raises body temperature and so the body tries to cool down by sweating. Supplementation with glutamine reduced the magnitude of strength loss, accelerated strength recovery, and diminished muscle soreness more quickly than placebo; these effects were more pronounced in the men.
Some athletes use glutamine supplements in the hope that they will attenuate exercise-induced immune impairment and reduce their risk of developing upper respiratory tract infections. However, there is little research-based support for this benefit [ , ].
In the studies described above, the glutamine had no reported side effects. Many patients with serious catabolic illnesses, such as infections, intestinal diseases, and burns, take glutamine safely as part of their medical care.
Daily oral doses ranging from 0. The research to date does not support taking glutamine alone to improve exercise and athletic performance [ , ].
Iron is an essential mineral and a structural component of hemoglobin, an erythrocyte protein that transfers oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and myoglobin, a protein in muscles that provides them with oxygen.
Iron is also necessary to metabolize substrates for energy as a component of cytochromes and to dehydrogenase enzymes involved in substrate oxidation [ ]. Iron deficiency impairs oxygen-carrying capacity and muscle function, and it limits people's ability to exercise and be active [ 12 , ].
Its detrimental effects can include fatigue and lethargy, lower aerobic capacity, and slower times in performance trials [ ]. Iron balance is an important consideration for athletes who must pay attention to both iron intakes and iron losses.
Teenage girls and premenopausal women are at increased risk of obtaining insufficient amounts of iron from their diets. They require more iron than teenage boys and men because they lose considerable iron due to menstruation, and they might not eat sufficient amounts of iron-containing foods [ , ].
Athletes of both sexes lose additional iron for several reasons [ , , , ]. Physical activity produces acute inflammation that reduces iron absorption from the gut and iron use via a peptide, hepcidin, that regulates iron homeostasis.
Iron is also lost in sweat. The destruction of erythrocytes in the feet because of frequent striking on hard surfaces leads to foot-strike hemolysis. Also, use of anti-inflammatories and pain medications can lead to some blood loss from the gastrointestinal tract, thereby decreasing iron stores.
The richest dietary sources of heme iron which is highly bioavailable include lean meats and seafood. Plant-based foods—such as nuts, beans, vegetables, and fortified grain products—contain nonheme iron, which is less bioavailable than heme iron.
Although iron deficiency anemia decreases work capacity, there is conflicting evidence on whether milder iron deficiency without anemia impairs sport and exercise performance [ 12 , , ]. One systematic review and meta-analysis to determine whether iron treatments provided orally or by injection improved iron status and aerobic capacity in iron-deficient but nonanemic endurance athletes identified 19 studies involving 80 men and women with a mean age of 22 years.
Iron treatments improved iron status as expected, but they did not guarantee improvement in aerobic capacity or indices of endurance performance [ ].
Another systematic review and meta-analysis compared the effects of iron supplementation with no supplementation on exercise performance in women of reproductive age [ ]. Most of the 24 studies identified were small i. Based on the limited data and heterogenicity of results, the study authors suggested that preventing and treating iron deficiency could improve the performance of female athletes in sports that require endurance, maximal power output, and strength.
Athletes can safely obtain recommended intakes of iron by consuming a healthy diet containing iron-rich foods and by taking an iron-containing dietary supplement as needed. High doses of iron may be prescribed for several weeks or months to treat iron deficiency, especially if anemia is present.
Individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis, which predisposes them to absorb excessive amounts of dietary and supplemental iron, have an increased risk of iron overload [ ]. Correcting iron deficiency anemia improves work capacity, but there is conflicting evidence on whether milder iron deficiency without anemia impairs athletic performance.
Furthermore, they warn that iron supplementation can cause gastrointestinal side effects. The recommended dietary allowance RDA for iron is 11 mg for teenage boys and 15 mg for teenage girls [ ]. The RDA is 8 mg for men and 18 mg for women age 50 and younger, and 8 mg for older adults of both sexes.
Recommended intakes of iron for vegetarians and vegans are 1. More information on iron and the treatment of iron-deficiency anemia is available in the ODS health professional fact sheet on iron.
Protein is necessary to build, maintain, and repair muscle. Exercise increases intramuscular protein oxidation and breakdown, after which muscle-protein synthesis increases for up to a day or two [ ]. Regular resistance exercise results in the accretion of myofibrillar protein the predominant proteins in skeletal muscle and an increase in skeletal muscle fiber size.
Aerobic exercise leads to more modest protein accumulation in working muscle, primarily in the mitochondria, which enhances oxidative capacity oxygen use for future workouts [ , ]. Athletes must consider both protein quality and quantity to meet their needs for the nutrient. They must obtain EAAs from the diet or from supplementation to support muscle growth, maintenance, and repair [ ].
The nine EAAs are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. See other sections of this fact sheet for information on the amino acids arginine and glutamine as well as the BCAAs leucine, isoleucine, and valine.
The potential of these amino acids to enhance exercise and athletic performance is not related to their incorporation into proteins. Adequate protein in the diet is required to provide the EAAs necessary for muscle-protein synthesis and to minimize muscle-protein breakdown.
Dietary protein consumption increases the concentration of amino acids in the blood, which muscle cells then take up. Sufficient protein is necessary primarily to optimize the training response to, and the recovery period after, exercise [ 12 , ].
Muscle protein synthesis leading to increases in strength and muscle mass appears to be optimal with the consumption of high-quality protein providing about 10 g EAAs within 0—2 hours after exercise, in the early recovery phase [ 12 ].
However, a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials found that ingesting protein within an hour before or after exercise does not significantly increase muscle strength or size or facilitate muscle repair or remodeling [ 77 ]. The period after exercise when protein intake reduces muscle protein breakdown, builds muscle, and increases mitochondrial proteins to enhance oxygen use by working muscles the so-called window of anabolic opportunity can last for up to 24 hours [ 79 ].
Participants in these studies consumed a bedtime drink containing Some studies show increased muscle protein synthesis when plasma levels of amino acids are raised [ 76 ]. The Food and Nutrition Board has not set a UL for protein, noting that the risk of adverse effects from excess protein from food is very low [ ].
However, it advises caution for those obtaining high protein intakes from foods and supplements because of the limited data on their potential adverse effects. High-protein diets e. Protein increases urinary calcium excretion, but this appears to have no consequence for long-term bone health [ ] and, in any event, is easily compensated for by the consumption of slightly more calcium.
Many foods—including meats, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, beans, and nuts—contain protein. Protein powders and drinks are also available, most of which contain whey, one of the complete proteins isolated from milk [ ].
Digestion of casein, the main complete protein in milk, is slower than that of whey, so the release of amino acids from casein into the blood is slower [ 72 ]. Soy protein lacks the EAA methionine and might lose some cysteine and lysine in processing; rice protein lacks the EAA isoleucine [ ].
Many protein supplements consist of a combination of these protein sources. All EAAs are necessary to stimulate muscle protein synthesis, so users should select singular or complementary protein sources accordingly.
To maximize muscle adaptations to training, the AND, DoC, and ACSM recommend that athletes consume 0. Since the Food and Nutrition Board developed the RDA for protein, more recent data have suggested that athletes require a daily protein intake of 1.
Athletes might benefit from even greater amounts for short periods of intense training or when they reduce their energy intake to improve physique or achieve a competition weight [ 12 ].
The — National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NHANES showed that the average daily intake of protein by adult men is g and by women is 69 g [ ]. Athletes who require additional protein can obtain it by consuming more protein-containing foods and, if needed, protein supplements and protein-fortified food and beverage products.
Quercetin is a polyphenolic flavonol that is naturally present in a variety of fruits such as apples , vegetables such as onions , and beverages such as wine and, especially, tea. The mechanisms by which quercetin might enhance exercise and athletic performance when taken in much larger amounts are not known, but many have been hypothesized.
For example, quercetin might increase the number of mitochondria in muscle, reduce oxidative stress, decrease inflammation, and improve endothelial function blood flow [ , ].
Numerous small studies have assessed quercetin in supplemental form as a potential ergogenic aid in young adult, mostly male, participants.
The effects of quercetin supplementation were inconsistent and varied by study, but they generally ranged from no ergogenic benefit to only a trivial or small improvement that might not be meaningful in real-world in contrast to laboratory exercise conditions [ 42 , , , ].
The safety of longer term use of that amount of quercetin or more has not been studied. More research, including larger clinical trials, on quercetin supplementation to improve aerobic capacity in trained athletes during specific sports and competitions is needed before any recommendations can be made [ ].
Ribose, a naturally occurring 5-carbon sugar synthesized by cells and found in some foods, is involved in the production of ATP [ 75 ].
The amount of ATP in muscle is limited, and it must continually be resynthesized. Therefore, theoretically, the more ribose in the body, the more potential ATP production [ ]. The authors of the short-term studies investigating ribose as a potential ergogenic aid have not reported any safety concerns.
No studies have assessed the safety of long-term ribose use as a dietary supplement. Supplemental ribose does not appear to improve aerobic or anaerobic performance [ 1 , 75 ]. Sodium bicarbonate is commonly known as baking soda. The consumption of several teaspoons of sodium bicarbonate over a short time temporarily increases blood pH by acting as a buffering agent.
The precise mechanism by which this induced alkalosis leads to an ergogenic response to exercise is unclear. It is thought that bicarbonate loading enhances disposal of hydrogen ions that accumulate and efflux from working muscles as they generate energy in the form of ATP via anaerobic glycolysis from high-intensity exercise, thereby reducing the metabolic acidosis that contributes to fatigue [ , ].
As a result, supplementation with sodium bicarbonate might improve performance in short-term, intense exercises e. Many studies have assessed sodium bicarbonate as an ergogenic aid in swimmers, cyclists, rowers, boxers, tennis and rugby players, judo practitioners, and others [ ].
These studies usually included a small number of participants who underwent one or more trials in a laboratory over several days.
Because the research results are conflicting, the activities and individuals most likely to benefit from sodium bicarbonate supplementation in real-world conditions is not clear. However, individuals have varied responses to bicarbonate loading; the practice does not benefit some users, and it can worsen rather than enhance performance in others.
Recreationally active individuals, in particular, might find the supplements to be ergogenic for one exercise session but not another. Many study findings suggest that supplementation with sodium bicarbonate is most likely to improve the performance of trained athletes [ , ].
The main side effect of sodium bicarbonate supplementation in gram quantities is gastrointestinal distress, including nausea, stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. Supplement users can reduce or minimize this distress by consuming the total dose in smaller amounts multiple times over an hour with fluid and a snack of carbohydrate-rich food [ , ].
Sodium bicarbonate is Such a large intake of sodium with fluid can lead to temporary hyperhydration, which could be useful in activities where large sweat losses might otherwise lead to significant fluid deficits.
However, the slight increase in body weight from fluid retention might hinder performance in other sports [ ]. Studies have not evaluated the safety and effectiveness of long-term use of sodium bicarbonate as an ergogenic aid over months or longer.
Many athletes find this amount of sodium bicarbonate powder dissolved in fluid to be unpalatably salty [ ]. The Australian Institute of Sport supports the use of bicarbonate for improving sports performance in suitable athletic competitions under the direction of an expert in sports medicine, but it notes that more research might be required to understand how the supplement should be used for best results [ 29 ].
The Montmorency variety of tart or sour cherry Prunus cerasus contains anthocyanins and other polyphenolic phytochemicals, such as quercetin. Researchers hypothesize that these compounds have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects that might facilitate exercise recovery by reducing pain and inflammation, strength loss and muscle damage from intense activity, and hyperventilation trauma from endurance activities [ ].
The labels on tart-cherry juice and concentrate products do not usually indicate that they are dietary supplements, although the labels on products containing encapsulated tart-cherry powder do. Much of the limited research on use of tart cherry to enhance exercise and athletic performance involves short-term use of a tart-cherry product or placebo by young resistance-trained men for about a week before a test of strength such as single-leg extensions or back squats ; participants continue taking the supplements for about 2 days after the test.
None of the participants who drank the juice experienced airway inflammation causing upper respiratory tract symptoms after the marathon a common complaint in many marathon runners , but half of those drinking the placebo did. Another study compared a supplement containing mg freeze-dried Montmorency tart-cherry-skin powder CherryPURE with a placebo in 18 male and 9 female endurance-trained runners and triathletes age range 18—26 years [ ].
Participants took the supplements once a day for 10 days, including the day they ran a half-marathon, then for 2 days after the run.
Further research is needed to determine the value of tart-cherry products for enhancing performance and recovery from intense exercise or participation in sports—especially when used on a regular basis—and the amounts of supplement, juice, or concentrate needed to provide any benefits.
Studies have not identified any side effects of the fresh tart-cherry juice or concentrate or of supplements of dried tart-cherry-skin powder.
However, they have not adequately assessed the safety of tart-cherry dietary supplements. There is no expert consensus on the value of taking tart-cherry products to enhance exercise and athletic performance.
Tribulus terrestris common names include bindii, goat's-head, bullhead, and tackweed , is a fruit-bearing plant that is most common in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe.
It has been used since ancient times in Greece, China, and Asia to treat low libido and infertility [ ]. Tribulus terrestris extracts contain many compounds, including steroidal saponins [ ].
Some marketers claim that Tribulus terrestris enhances exercise and athletic performance by increasing serum concentrations of testosterone and luteinizing hormone, but studies have not adequately determined its potential mechanisms of action [ ]. Only a few small, short-term clinical trials have investigated Tribulus terrestris as an ergogenic aid [ ], and none since A study in 15 resistance-trained men found no differences among those taking 3.
In 22 elite male rugby players age The only toxicity studies of Tribulus terrestris were conducted in animals, where unspecified high intakes led to severe heart, liver, and kidney damage [ ]. The clinical studies described above found no side effects of Tribulus terrestris.
Subsequent tests indicated hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. The man's condition improved after he discontinued the water, but the water was not tested to determine the presence or amount of Tribulus terrestris or any other potential toxin or contaminant.
The Australian Institute of Sport advises against the use of Tribulus terrestris by athletes, noting that this supplement and other claimed testosterone boosters are banned from athletic competitions or have a high risk of being contaminated with substances that, if ingested, could lead to positive drug-screening results [ ].
The published biomedical literature provides no support for the efficacy and insufficient support for the safety of Tribulus terrestris for enhancing exercise performance [ ].
This section provides examples of ingredients that FDA currently prohibits in dietary supplements and that some consumers have used in the past as ergogenic aids, despite the lack of evidence supporting their use.
Androstenedione is an anabolic steroid precursor, or prohormone, that the body converts to testosterone which induces muscle growth and estrogen [ ]. Major League Baseball slugger Mark McGwire popularized androstenedione as an ergogenic aid in [ ].
However, two randomized clinical trials found no performance benefits from androstenedione supplements. In one study, 10 healthy young men age 19—29 years took a single mg dose of androstenedione. The short-term or longer term use of the supplement did not affect serum testosterone concentrations, nor did it produce any significantly greater gains in resistance-training performance, muscle strength, or lean body mass.
However, participants who took androstenedione for the 6 weeks experienced significant declines in their high-density lipoprotein HDL cholesterol levels and significant increases in serum estrogens.
The supplements did not improve participants' muscular strength or lean body mass compared with placebo, but they significantly decreased HDL cholesterol levels and raised levels of serum estrogens.
In March , FDA warned companies to cease distributing androstenedione-containing dietary supplements. The rationale was the lack of sufficient information to establish that such products could reasonably be expected to be safe and that FDA had never approved androstenedione as a new dietary ingredient permitted in supplements [ ].
Department of Justice classified androstenedione as a Schedule III controlled substance defined as a drug with a moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence in [ ]. The National Collegiate Athletic Association, International Olympic Committee, and World Anti-Doping Agency ban the use of androstenedione [ , ].
Dimethylamylamine DMAA is a stimulant formerly included in some preworkout and other dietary supplements claimed to enhance exercise performance and build muscle. Studies have not evaluated DMAA in humans as a potential ergogenic aid. In , FDA declared products containing this ingredient to be illegal after it received 86 reports of deaths and illnesses associated with dietary supplements containing DMAA.
These reports described heart problems as well as nervous system and psychiatric disorders [ ]. Furthermore, FDA had never approved DMAA as a new dietary ingredient that would reasonably be expected to be safe [ ].
Although products marketed as dietary supplements containing DMAA are illegal in the United States, discontinued, reformulated, or even new products containing DMAA might still be found in the U.
The Department of Defense's Human Performance Resource Center maintains a list of currently available products that contain DMAA or are labeled as containing DMAA, dimethylamylamine, or an equivalent chemical or marketing name e. FDA also determined that dietary supplements containing 1,3-dimethybutylamine DMBA , a stimulant chemically related to DMAA, are adulterated.
As with DMAA, FDA had never approved this stimulant as a new dietary ingredient. The agency contended that there is no history of use or data offering sufficient assurance that this compound is not associated with a significant or unreasonable risk of illness or injury [ , ].
Ephedra also known as ma huang , a plant native to China, contains ephedrine alkaloids, which are stimulant compounds; the primary alkaloid is ephedrine [ ]. In the s, ephedra—frequently combined with caffeine—was a popular ingredient in dietary supplements sold to enhance exercise and athletic performance and to promote weight loss.
No studies have evaluated the use of ephedra dietary supplements, with or without caffeine, as ergogenic aids. Instead, available studies have used the related synthetic compound ephedrine together with caffeine and typically measured the effects 1—2 hours after a single dose [ , ].
No data show any sustained improvement in athletic performance over time with continued dosing of ephedrine with caffeine [ ]. Ephedra use has been associated with death and serious adverse effects, including nausea, vomiting, psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety and mood change , hypertension, palpitations, stroke, seizures, and heart attack [ , ].
In , FDA banned the sale of dietary supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids in the United States because they are associated with an unreasonable risk of illness or injury [ ].
FDA regulates dietary supplements for exercise and athletic performance in accordance with the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of [ ]. Like other dietary supplements, exercise- and athletic-performance supplements differ from over-the-counter or prescription medications in that they do not require premarket review or approval by FDA.
Supplement manufacturers are responsible for determining that their products are safe and their label claims are truthful and not misleading, although they are not required to provide this evidence to FDA before marketing their products.
If FDA finds a supplement to be unsafe, it may remove the product from the market or ask the manufacturer to voluntarily recall the product. FDA and the Federal Trade Commission FTC may also take regulatory actions against manufacturers that make unsubstantiated physical-performance or other claims about their products.
FDA permits dietary supplements to contain only dietary ingredients, such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs, and other botanicals. It does not permit these products to contain pharmaceutical ingredients, and manufacturers may not promote them to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease [ ].
For more information about dietary supplement regulation, see the ODS publication, Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know. Like all dietary supplements, supplements used to enhance exercise and athletic performance can have side effects and might interact with prescription and over-the-counter medications.
In some cases, the active constituents of botanical or other ingredients promoted as ergogenic aids are unknown or uncharacterized. Furthermore, many such products contain multiple ingredients that have not been adequately tested in combination with one another.
People interested in taking dietary supplements to enhance their exercise and athletic performance should talk with their health care providers about the use of these products.
The Uniformed Services University and the U. Anti-Doping Agency maintain a list of products marketed as dietary supplements that contain stimulants, steroids, hormone-like ingredients, controlled substances, or unapproved drugs and that can have health risks for warfighters and others who take them for bodybuilding or other forms of physical performance [ ].
FDA requires the manufacture of dietary supplements to comply with quality standards that ensure that these products contain only the labeled ingredients and amounts and are free of undeclared substances and unsafe levels of contaminants [ ]. However, FDA notes that products marketed as dietary supplements for bodybuilding are among those most often adulterated with undeclared or deceptively labeled ingredients, such as synthetic anabolic steroids or prescription medications [ ].
As one example, some products sold for bodybuilding are adulterated with selective androgen receptor modulators; these synthetic drugs are designed to mimic the effects of testosterone [ ].
Using such tainted products can cause health problems and lead to disqualification of athletes from competition if a drug test shows that they have consumed prohibited substances, even if they have done so unknowingly. FDA has warned against the use of any body-building products that claim to contain steroids or steroid-like substances [ ].
It recommends that a user contact their health care provider if they experience symptoms possibly related to these products, especially nausea, weakness, fatigue, fever, abdominal pain, chest pain, shortness of breath, jaundice yellowing of skin or whites of eyes , or brown or discolored urine.
Some dietary-supplement firms have hired third-party certification companies to verify the identity and content of their supplements to enhance exercise and athletic performance, thus providing some extra, independent assurance that the products contain the labeled amounts of ingredients and are free of many banned substances and drugs.
The major companies providing this certification service are NSF nsf. org through its Certified for Sport program, Informed-Choice informed-choice.
org , and the Banned Substances Control Group bscg. For example, the dietary reference intake for adult females is 46 g, and for adult males — 56 g. That is why it may be beneficial for athletes to consume nearer to 92 g and g of protein, respectively. The ISSA suggests that many athletes can safely consume 2 g of protein per 1 kg of body weight daily, compared with the RDA of 0.
The ISSN also notes that optimal protein intake may vary from 1. Higher amounts of protein can help athletes avoid protein catabolism and slow recovery, which the ISSN notes can contribute to injuries and muscle wasting over time. For moderate amounts of intense training, an athlete should consume 1.
For high volume intense training, the ISSN suggests 1. Healthy protein sources include:. Fats are essential in the diet to maintain bodily processes, such as hormone metabolism and neurotransmitter function. Including healthy fats in the diet also helps satiety and can serve as a concentrated fuel source for athletes with high energy demands.
Some athletes may choose to eat a ketogenic diet and consume higher amounts of fats. Healthy fat sources include oily fish , olive oil , avocados , nuts, and seeds. Athletes should ensure they consume the essential vitamins and minerals they need to support their general health and sports performance.
People can usually achieve adequate intakes of essential vitamins and minerals by eating a varied, balanced diet. Some athletes may choose to take vitamin or mineral supplements or ergogenic aids, such as creatine. The ISSN recommends that consumers evaluate the validity and scientific merit of claims that manufacturers make about dietary supplements.
There is little evidence to support the efficacy or safety of many dietary supplements, including:. However, scientists have shown that other ergogenic aids, such as caffeine and creatine monohydrate, are safe and effective for athletes.
It is important to be aware that some athletic associations ban the use of certain nutritional supplements. Moreover, athletes should ensure they maintain adequate hydration. Given that sweat losses are a combination of fluids and electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium, athletes may choose to and benefit from using sports drinks, milk , or both to meet some of their hydration needs.
The ISSN suggests that athletes training intensely for 2—6 hours per day 5—6 days of the week may burn over — calories per hour while exercising.
As a result, athletes engaging in this level of activity may require 40—70 calories per 1 kg of body weight per day, compared with the average less active individual, who typically requires 25—35 calories per 1 kg of body weight daily. According to the ISSN, athletes weighing 50— kg may require 2,—7, calories per day.
It also notes that athletes weighing — kg may need to consume 6,—12, calories daily to meet training demands. The timing and content of meals can help support training goals, reduce fatigue, and help optimize body composition. Guidelines for the timing and amount of nutrition will vary depending on the type of athlete.
For example, the ISSN advises strength athletes consume carbohydrates and protein or protein on its own up to 4 hours before and up to 2 hours after exercise. The American College of Sports Medicine ACSM also notes the importance of consuming protein both before and after exercise for strength athletes.
By contrast, endurance athletes would need to consume mostly carbohydrates and a small amount of protein roughly 1—4 hours before exercise. Both the ISSN and ACSM emphasize the role of meal timing in optimizing recovery and performance and recommend athletes space nutrient intake evenly throughout the day, every 3—4 hours.
Some people may find that consuming meals too close to the beginning of exercise can cause digestive discomfort. It is therefore important to eat an appropriate amount and not exercise too quickly after eating.
People who are training or racing at peak levels may find it challenging to consume enough food for their energy requirements without causing gastrointestinal GI discomfort, especially immediately before an important workout or race. For example, the ISSA highlights the importance of hydration and carbohydrate loading for competitive swimmers.
At the same time, it emphasizes consuming easily digestible carbohydrates, such as bananas and pasta, prior to events to avoid GI discomfort.
Athletes may need to work with a sports nutritionist, preferably a registered dietitian , to ensure they consume enough calories and nutrients to maintain their body weight, optimize performance and recovery, and plan a timing strategy that suits their body, sport, and schedule.
In Wisconsin clinic and Athletic performance nutrition Green tea extract and brain function masks are Athleticc during nutritjon patient interactions. In Illinois clinic and Athletic performance nutrition locations performace are required in some areas and strongly recommended in others. Learn more. Every athlete strives for an edge over the competition. Daily training and recovery require a comprehensive eating plan that matches these physical demands. The keys to peak nutrition performance aimed to complement your training and competition are reviewed below. The energy needs of athletes exceed those of the average person.Video
My Hybrid Athlete Diet (Running + Lifting) - VLOG 007Athletic performance nutrition -
Healthy fat sources include oily fish , olive oil , avocados , nuts, and seeds. Athletes should ensure they consume the essential vitamins and minerals they need to support their general health and sports performance. People can usually achieve adequate intakes of essential vitamins and minerals by eating a varied, balanced diet.
Some athletes may choose to take vitamin or mineral supplements or ergogenic aids, such as creatine. The ISSN recommends that consumers evaluate the validity and scientific merit of claims that manufacturers make about dietary supplements.
There is little evidence to support the efficacy or safety of many dietary supplements, including:. However, scientists have shown that other ergogenic aids, such as caffeine and creatine monohydrate, are safe and effective for athletes.
It is important to be aware that some athletic associations ban the use of certain nutritional supplements. Moreover, athletes should ensure they maintain adequate hydration. Given that sweat losses are a combination of fluids and electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium, athletes may choose to and benefit from using sports drinks, milk , or both to meet some of their hydration needs.
The ISSN suggests that athletes training intensely for 2—6 hours per day 5—6 days of the week may burn over — calories per hour while exercising. As a result, athletes engaging in this level of activity may require 40—70 calories per 1 kg of body weight per day, compared with the average less active individual, who typically requires 25—35 calories per 1 kg of body weight daily.
According to the ISSN, athletes weighing 50— kg may require 2,—7, calories per day. It also notes that athletes weighing — kg may need to consume 6,—12, calories daily to meet training demands.
The timing and content of meals can help support training goals, reduce fatigue, and help optimize body composition. Guidelines for the timing and amount of nutrition will vary depending on the type of athlete.
For example, the ISSN advises strength athletes consume carbohydrates and protein or protein on its own up to 4 hours before and up to 2 hours after exercise.
The American College of Sports Medicine ACSM also notes the importance of consuming protein both before and after exercise for strength athletes.
By contrast, endurance athletes would need to consume mostly carbohydrates and a small amount of protein roughly 1—4 hours before exercise. Both the ISSN and ACSM emphasize the role of meal timing in optimizing recovery and performance and recommend athletes space nutrient intake evenly throughout the day, every 3—4 hours.
Some people may find that consuming meals too close to the beginning of exercise can cause digestive discomfort. It is therefore important to eat an appropriate amount and not exercise too quickly after eating.
People who are training or racing at peak levels may find it challenging to consume enough food for their energy requirements without causing gastrointestinal GI discomfort, especially immediately before an important workout or race.
For example, the ISSA highlights the importance of hydration and carbohydrate loading for competitive swimmers. At the same time, it emphasizes consuming easily digestible carbohydrates, such as bananas and pasta, prior to events to avoid GI discomfort.
Athletes may need to work with a sports nutritionist, preferably a registered dietitian , to ensure they consume enough calories and nutrients to maintain their body weight, optimize performance and recovery, and plan a timing strategy that suits their body, sport, and schedule.
Athletes need to eat a healthy and varied diet that meets their nutrient requirements. Choosing whole grains and other fiber -rich carbohydrates as part of a daily diet generally promotes health.
However, immediately prior to and during intense trainings and races, some athletes may prefer simpler, lower fiber carbohydrates to provide necessary fuel while minimizing GI distress. The following is an example of what an athlete might eat in a day to meet their nutritional needs.
Breakfast: eggs — either boiled, scrambled, or poached — with salmon , fresh spinach , and whole grain toast or bagel. Lunch: stir-fry with chicken or tofu, brown rice , broccoli , green beans , and cherry tomatoes cooked in oil. Dinner: a baked sweet potato topped with turkey, bean chili, or both, served with a watercress , peppers, and avocado salad drizzled with olive oil and topped with hemp seeds.
Snacks are an important way for athletes to meet their calorie and nutrition needs and stay well fueled throughout the day. Options include:.
Athletes need to plan their diet to optimize their health and performance. They should consider their calorie and macronutrient needs and ensure they eat a varied diet that provides essential vitamins and minerals.
Hydration and meal timing are also vital for performing well throughout the day. Some athletes may choose to take dietary supplements.
However, they should be mindful of safety and efficacy issues and ensure that their sporting association allows them. Both amateur and professional athletes may benefit from consulting with a sports nutritionist to help them plan the optimal diet for their individual needs and goals. Many athletes look for safe and efficient ways to boost their performance.
In this article, we look at six vitamins and supplements that may help. Diets particularly suitable for athletes are those that provide sufficient calories and all the essential nutrients.
Learn about the best meal…. What are micronutrients? Read on to learn more about these essential vitamins and minerals, the role they play in supporting health, as well as…. Adding saffron supplements to standard-of-care treatment for ulcerative colitis may help reduce inflammation and positively benefit patients, a new….
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Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Human Biology. Nervous system Cardiovascular system Respiratory system Digestive system Immune system. Why is diet so important for athletes? Medically reviewed by Alissa Palladino, MS, RDN, LD, CPT , Nutrition , Personal Training — By Louisa Richards on April 20, Each section concludes with information and advice from expert sources, when available, on use of the ingredient as an ergogenic aid.
In theory, free radicals could impair exercise performance by impeding muscles' ability to produce force, thereby accelerating muscle damage and fatigue and producing inflammation and soreness [ ].
Some researchers have suggested that supplements containing antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E and coenzyme Q 10 CoQ 10 , could reduce this free-radical formation, thereby minimizing skeletal muscle damage and fatigue and promoting recovery [ 19 ].
Studies suggest that the use of large doses of antioxidant supplements, especially vitamins C and E, may actually reduce rather than promote some of the beneficial effects of exercise.
One study, for example, randomly assigned 54 healthy Norwegian men and women age 20—30 years, most of whom were recreational exercisers, to receive 1, mg vitamin C and mg about IU vitamin E as DL-alpha-tocopherol or a placebo daily for 11 weeks while engaging in an endurance training program consisting mostly of running.
Compared with placebo, the supplements had no effect on maximal oxygen consumption VO 2 max, a measure of aerobic fitness and endurance capacity or running performance.
However, they significantly lowered levels of biochemical markers related to mitochondrial creation and exercise-induced cell signaling, thereby diminishing the desirable training-induced adaptations within skeletal muscle [ 20 ].
The same research group conducted another trial using the same doses of vitamins C and E in 32 young men and women who followed a strength-training program for 10 weeks. Compared with placebo, the supplements did not affect muscle growth, but they significantly reduced the gain in arm strength as measured by biceps curls and blunted cellular signaling pathways linked to muscle hypertrophy [ 21 ].
After 7 days of high-intensity cycling sprints, the CoQ 10 group had, on average, a significantly smaller improvement in mean power output than the placebo group, suggesting a poorer adaptation to training. The preponderance of research to date suggests that exercise-induced reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide are beneficial.
These free radicals induce adaptive changes in muscle that lead to greater production of mitochondria and hypertrophy of myofibers [ 17 , 21 , 23 , 24 ].
However, these adaptations might not prevent improvements in VO 2 max or endurance performance [ 25 ]. Studies on the safety of vitamins C, E, and other antioxidant supplements taken during exercise show no evidence of adverse effects, aside from potentially reducing some of the benefits of exercise, but such studies have only lasted a few weeks or months.
These amounts are substantially higher than the doses that studies have typically used for exercise and athletic performance. Among the potential adverse effects of excess vitamin C are diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramps, and other gastrointestinal disturbances.
The intake of excessive amounts of vitamin E increases the risks of hemorrhagic effects. The side effects of CoQ 10 are mild and can include fatigue, insomnia, rashes, nausea, upper abdominal pain, heartburn, sensitivity to light, irritability, dizziness, and headaches [ 28 ].
Little research supports the use as ergogenic aids of antioxidant supplements containing greater amounts than those available from a nutritionally adequate diet [ 19 , 25 ].
In fact, they can adversely affect some measures of exercise and athletic performance. The Australian Institute of Sport, part of the government of Australia, does not recommend supplementation with vitamins C and E by athletes, except when they use these products as part of a research protocol or with proper monitoring [ 29 ].
More information on vitamin C and vitamin E is available in the Office of Dietary Supplements ODS health professional fact sheets on these nutrients. L-arginine is an amino acid found in many protein-containing foods, especially animal products and nuts.
The body also synthesizes arginine from citrulline , mainly in the kidneys. Some experts suggest that taking arginine in supplement form enhances exercise and athletic performance in several ways [ ]. First, some arginine is converted to nitric oxide, a potent vasodilator that can increase blood flow and the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to skeletal muscle.
Second, increased vasodilation can speed up the removal of metabolic waste products related to muscle fatigue, such as lactate and ammonia, that the body produces during exercise. Third, arginine serves as a precursor for the synthesis of creatine, which helps supply muscle with energy for short-term, intense activity.
Fourth, arginine may increase the secretion of human growth hormone HGH , which in turn increases insulin-like growth factor-1 IGF-1 levels, both of which stimulate muscle growth.
The research to support supplemental arginine as a performance enhancer is limited and conflicting. Furthermore, arginine typically had no effect on nitric oxide concentration, blood flow, or exercise metabolites e.
A recent review assessed 54 clinical studies examining the effects of arginine supplementation on strength performance, endurance, muscle blood volume and flow, cardiorespiratory measures, and nitric oxide production in healthy, active adults.
The authors concluded that supplemental arginine either alone or, more commonly, in combination with other ingredients, such as branched-chain amino acids [BCAAs] and lysine provided little or no enhancement of athletic performance and did not improve recovery from exhaustion [ 33 ].
Most of the studies included few participants, primarily young men age 18—25 years only four studies included women , and lasted only 4—8 weeks with none lasting 3 months or longer. Research on the ability of supplemental arginine to raise HGH and IGF-1 serum concentrations also has had conflicting findings.
Even raised HGH secretion, however, might not translate into more blood flow into muscle or greater protein synthesis [ 31 ]. Little evidence shows supplemental arginine by itself increases muscle creatine concentrations or is superior or complementary to direct consumption of creatine [ 30 ].
The safety of taking high-dose arginine supplements for more than 3 months is not known [ 33 ]. Beets are one of the richest food sources of inorganic nitrate.
Ingested nitrate might enhance exercise and athletic performance in several ways, primarily through its conversion into nitric oxide in the body.
Nitric acid is a potent vasodilator that can increase blood flow and the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to skeletal muscle. Ingested nitrate might also enhance performance by dilating blood vessels in exercising muscle when oxygen levels decline, thereby increasing oxygen and nutrient delivery, reducing the oxygen cost of submaximal exercise, attenuating the adenosine triphosphate ATP -creatine phosphate energy system's cost associated with skeletal muscle force production, and improving oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria [ 40 , 41 ].
Beetroot is available as a juice or juice concentrate and in powdered form; the amount of nitrate can vary considerably among products.
A growing number of clinical trials investigating beetroot juice or concentrate as an ergogenic aid have been published since Beetroot has generally improved performance and endurance to different extents compared with placebo among runners, swimmers, rowers, and cyclists in time trials and time-to-exhaustion tests, but not in all studies [ 40 , ].
Performance benefits are more likely in recreationally active nonathletes than elite athletes [ 42 , 46 ]. One study in 10 recreationally active, young male cyclists suggested a dose-response relationship [ 47 ]. Although consuming beetroot juice concentrate on each of 4 days to supply 4. However, consumption of even more beetroot juice supplying There has been little study of the effects of beetroot on anaerobic performance, such as high-volume resistance exercise with many repetitions [ 40 ].
More research is needed to clarify the potential benefits of nitrate supplementation from beetroot juice on exercise and athletic performance and to determine the best doses and dosing protocols [ 48 ]. No research has assessed longer term supplementation with beetroot-derived nitrate beyond several weeks as an ergogenic aid.
The amount of nitrate that this amount of juice provides is less than half the total nitrate consumption from a diet rich in vegetables and fruits [ 49 ]. Although not a safety concern, beetroot consumption can color the urine pink or red due to the excretion of red pigments in the beets [ 50 ].
In a position statement, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics AND , the Dietitians of Canada DoC , and the American College of Sports Medicine ACSM state that nitrate sources, such as beetroot juice, enhance exercise tolerance and economy and they improve endurance exercise performance in recreational athletes [ 12 ].
The Australian Institute of Sport supports the use of beetroot juice for improving sports performance in suitable athletic competitions under the direction of an expert in sports medicine, but it notes that more research might be required to understand how the supplement should be used for best results [ 29 ].
This amount of juice provides about 5—11 mmol or — mg nitrate, depending on the product [ 41 ]. Potential benefits persist for up to 24 hours after ingestion [ 40 ].
The labels on beetroot juice and concentrate usually indicate that these products are foods and not dietary supplements. Some dietary supplements contain beetroot powder in varying amounts, but studies have not assessed whether these are viable alternatives to beetroot juice or beetroot-juice concentrate.
Beta-alanine, a type of amino acid that the body does not incorporate into proteins, is the rate-limiting precursor to the synthesis of carnosine—a dipeptide of histidine and beta-alanine—in skeletal muscle. Carnosine helps buffer changes in muscle pH from the anaerobic glycolysis that provides energy during high-intensity exercise but results in the buildup of hydrogen ions as lactic acid accumulates and dissociates to form lactate, leading to reduced force and to fatigue [ 51 ].
More carnosine in muscle leads to greater potential attenuation of exercise-induced reductions in pH, which could enhance performance of intense activities of short to moderate duration, such as rowing and swimming [ 52 ]. Beta-alanine is produced in the liver, and relatively small amounts are present in animal-based foods such as meat, poultry, and fish.
Carnosine is present in animal-based foods, such as beef and pork. However, oral consumption of carnosine is an inefficient method of increasing muscle carnosine concentrations because the dipeptide is digested into its constituent amino acids.
Consumption of beta-alanine, in contrast, reliably increases the amount of carnosine in the body. For example, in one study of young, physically active but untrained adult men who took 4.
Among the low responders, the duration of the washout period when beta alanine concentrations returned to baseline values was less than half that for the high responders 6 weeks vs.
Studies have evaluated beta-alanine as a potential ergogenic aid with a variety of participants, exercise and activity protocols, and dosing regimens. Some studies suggest that beta-alanine consumption could provide small performance benefits in competitive events requiring high-intensity effort over a short period, such as rowing, swimming, and team sports e.
Other studies have found no such benefits [ 53 ]. Evidence is conflicting on whether beta-alanine consumption improves performance in endurance activities, such as cycling [ 53 , 56 ]. Experts have not reached consensus on whether beta-alanine consumption primarily benefits trained athletes or recreationally active individuals [ 53 , 57 ].
Studies provide little consistent evidence of a relationship between the dose of beta-alanine and performance effect [ 51 , 58 ]. The authors of a Department of Defense-sponsored review concluded that the limited evidence from 20 human trials did not support consumption of beta-alanine alone or in combination products by active adults to enhance athletic performance or improve recovery from exercise-related exhaustion [ 59 ].
Most of the studies in this review included young men age 18—25 years who took 1. However, performance benefits are more modest in exercise tests lasting more than 4 minutes because aerobic metabolic pathways increasingly meet energy demands.
The ISSN called for more research to determine whether beta-alanine increases the strength and muscle mass that regular resistance exercise, such as weightlifting, can produce.
The authors of the most recent review of studies on beta-alanine's effects on exercise concluded that supplementation has a statistically significant and positive effect on performance including in both isolated-limb and whole-body exercises , especially in protocols lasting 30 seconds to 10 minutes [ 58 ].
However, this review also highlighted the fact that small studies of short duration using varied exercise and supplement protocols dominate this scientific literature. The 40 placebo-controlled studies reviewed, for example, employed 65 exercise protocols and 70 exercise measures in a total of 1, participants.
Furthermore, the total dose of beta-alanine that participants consumed ranged from 84 to g in studies lasting 28—90 days. Beta-alanine supplementation appears to be safe at 1. This tingling, prickling, or burning sensation is common in the face, neck, back of the hands, and upper trunk and typically lasts 60—90 minutes but is not a painful, serious, or harmful reaction.
Use of divided doses or a sustained-release form of the supplement can attenuate paresthesia resulting from beta-alanine consumption [ 52 , 54 ].
Some research has also found that beta-alanine supplements can produce pruritus itchy skin , but the authors do not indicate the severity of this effect [ 59 ]. There are no safety data on use of the supplement for more than 1 year [ 54 , 60 ].
There is insufficient expert consensus on the value of taking beta-alanine to enhance performance in intense, short-term activities or its safety, particularly when users take it regularly for at least several months.
In a position statement, the AND, DoC, and ACSM advise that beta-alanine supplementation might improve training capacity and does enhance performance, especially of high-intensity exercise lasting 60— seconds, that acid-base disturbances resulting from increased anaerobic glycolysis would otherwise impair [ 12 ].
In its position statement, the ISSN concludes that beta-alanine supplementation improves exercise performance and attenuates neuromuscular fatigue [ 54 ]. The Australian Institute of Sport supports the use of beta-alanine for improving sports performance in suitable athletic competitions under the direction of an expert in sports medicine, but it notes that more research might be required to understand how the supplement should be used for best results [ 29 ].
It advises users to take beta-alanine supplements with meals to augment muscle carnosine levels and to use divided lower doses or take a sustained-release form if paresthesia occurs.
HMB is a metabolite of the branched-chain amino acid leucine. Some experts hypothesize that skeletal muscle cells that become stressed and damaged from exercise require an exogenous source of the coenzyme for synthesis of cholesterol in their cellular membranes to restore structure and function [ 62 , 63 ].
Experts also believe that the conversion of leucine to HMB activates muscle protein synthesis and reduces protein breakdown [ 63 ]. Although studies have investigated HMB for two decades, they have used substantially different periods of supplementation 1 day to 6 weeks and daily doses 1.
Studies also used participants of different ages 19 to 50 years , training status e. It is therefore difficult to predict what, if any, benefits an exercising individual might experience from consuming HMB. There is general agreement that HMB helps speed up recovery from exercise of sufficient amount and intensity to induce skeletal muscle damage [ 63 , 65 ].
Therefore, trained athletes must exert themselves more than untrained individuals to potentially benefit from using the supplement. Some studies suggest that HMB use has additional benefits, including an ability to enhance strength, power, skeletal muscle hypertrophy, and aerobic performance in both trained and untrained people [ 63 ].
A review of safety data from nine studies found that users tolerate HMB well, and it is safe at daily intakes of 3 g for 3 to 8 weeks in younger ages 18—47 years and older ages 62—81 adults of both sexes who do or do not exercise [ 66 ].
Assessments of blood chemistry, hematology, and emotional affect found no adverse effects. Use of HMB did not alter or adversely affect any measured hematologic, hepatic, or renal-function parameters in these young men.
There is no expert consensus on the value of taking HMB for several months or longer or its safety. HMB is not on a list of evidence-based ergogenic aids issued by the AND, DoC, and the ACSM [ 12 ].
The Australian Institute of Sport does not recommend HMB supplementation by athletes, except as part of a research protocol or with proper monitoring [ 29 ].
However, the ISSN notes that HMB can enhance recovery by reducing exercise-induced skeletal muscle damage in both trained and untrained individuals [ 63 ]. HMB is available in two forms: as a mono-hydrated calcium salt HMB-Ca and a calcium-free form HMB-free acid [HMB-FA].
Those who wish to limit their calcium intake can use HMB-FA [ 63 ]. Although the latter form appears to have a faster and greater effect based on its ability to raise HMB plasma levels, more studies are needed to compare the effects of HMB-Ca with those of HMB-FA [ 63 ].
The ISSN recommends that healthy adults interested in using HMB supplements take 1—2 g HMB-Ca 60 to minutes before exercise or 1—2 g HMB-FA 30 to 60 minutes before exercise [ 63 ].
Betaine, also known as trimethylglycine, is found in foods such as beets, spinach, and whole-grain breads. The mechanisms by which betaine might enhance exercise and athletic performance are not known, but many are hypothesized.
A limited number of small studies in men have assessed betaine in supplemental form as a potential ergogenic aid. These studies, which typically examined strength- and power-based performance in bodybuilders and, occasionally, cyclists, provided conflicting results, and performance improvements tended to be modest [ ].
The several small studies of athletes described in the previous paragraph who took betaine supplements for up to several weeks found no side effects or safety concerns.
However, research has not adequately evaluated the safety of betaine. More research on betaine supplementation to enhance various types of performance, training protocols, and exercise during specific sports is needed before any recommendations for its use can be made [ 71 ].
Three essential amino acids EAAs —leucine, isoleucine, and valine—are the branched-chain amino acids BCAAs , whose name reflects their chemical structure. Unlike other EAAs, the BCAAs can be metabolized by mitochondria in skeletal muscle to provide energy during exercise [ 74 , 75 ].
The BCAAs, especially leucine, might also stimulate protein synthesis in exercised muscle [ 72 , 76 ]. The limited research on the potential ergogenic effects of the BCAAs has found little evidence to date that supplements of these amino acids improve performance in endurance-related aerobic events [ 75 ].
The BCAAs might delay feelings of fatigue or help maintain mental focus by competing with the amino acid tryptophan a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin that regulates mood and sleep for entry into the brain, but this effect has not been well studied [ 72 , 74 , 75 ].
Overall, however, studies to date provide inconsistent evidence of the ability of BCAAs to stimulate muscle protein synthesis beyond the capacity of sufficient dietary amounts of any high-quality protein to perform this function [ 76 ].
Furthermore, it is not clear from existing research whether consumption of protein and BCAAs before versus after a workout affects their ability to maximize muscle protein synthesis and reduce protein catabolism [ 12 , ]. Studies have not consistently shown that taking supplements of BCAAs or any of their three constituent amino acids singly enhances exercise and athletic performance, builds muscle mass, or aids in recovery from exercise.
Consuming animal foods containing complete proteins—or a combination of plant-based foods with complementary proteins that together provide all EAAs—automatically increases consumption of BCAAs see section on protein.
This is also true of consuming protein powders made from complete proteins, especially whey, which has more leucine than either casein or soy [ 78 ]. Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system, muscles, and other organs such as the heart by binding to adenosine receptors on cells, thereby blocking the activity of adenosine, a neuromodulator with sedative-like properties [ 83 , 84 ].
In this way, caffeine enhances arousal, increases vigor, and reduces fatigue [ 13 , 85 , 86 ]. Caffeine also appears to reduce perceived pain and exertion [ 13 , 85 ]. During the early stages of endurance exercise, caffeine might mobilize free fatty acids as a source of energy and spare muscle glycogen [ 38 ].
Caffeine is commonly used in energy drinks and shots touted for their performance-enhancement effects [ 87 , 88 ]. It is also found in energy gels containing carbohydrates and electrolytes as well as in anhydrous caffeine-only pills.
For an individual weighing pounds 70 kg , this dose is equivalent to — mg caffeine. Taking more, however, is unlikely to improve performance further and increases the risk of side effects.
A review of the literature found that caffeine intake affected sport-specific performance e. Although 30 of the 33 trials showed positive improvements in performance, the improvements were not statistically significant in half of them [ 85 ]. In these studies, performance improvement ranged from a decrease of 0.
Factors such as the timing of ingestion, caffeine intake mode or form, and habituation to caffeine could also have accounted for the varied effects on performance.
Caffeine supplementation is more likely to help with endurance-type activities such as running and activities of long duration with intermittent activity such as soccer than more anaerobic, short-term bouts of intense exercise such as sprinting or lifting weights [ 91 ].
Some evidence suggests that caffeine is more likely to improve performance in people who are not habituated to it [ 85 ]. However, other evidence shows no habituation effect of caffeine consumption on performance [ 92 ].
Other adverse effects of caffeine include insomnia, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, tachycardia, and arrhythmia [ ]. Caffeine does not induce diuresis or increase sweat loss during exercise and therefore does not reduce fluid balance in the body that would adversely affect performance [ 13 , 90 , 98 ].
For healthy adults, the U. The American Academy of Pediatrics warns that caffeine-containing energy drinks in particular have no place in the diets of children or adolescents and are not suitable for use during routine physical activity [ ].
Pure powdered caffeine is available as a dietary supplement and is very potent. Furthermore, combining caffeine with other stimulants could increase the potential for adverse effects [ 94 ]. At least two young men have died as a result of taking an unknown amount of pure powdered caffeine [ ].
Caffeine is easily and rapidly absorbed, even from the buccal membranes in the mouth, and is distributed throughout the body and brain. It reaches peak concentrations in the blood within 45 minutes of consumption and has a half-life of about 4—5 hours [ 83 ].
For a potential benefit to athletic performance, users should consume caffeine 15 to 60 minutes before exercise [ 13 , 85 ]. Consumption of caffeine with fluid during exercise of long duration might extend any performance improvements [ 85 ].
In a position statement, the AND, DoC, and ACSM state that caffeine supplementation reduces perceived fatigue and enables users to sustain exercise at the desired intensity longer [ 12 ]. The U. It adds that caffeine could reduce perceived exertion when exercise lasts longer.
The Australian Institute of Sport supports the use of caffeine for improving sports performance in suitable athletic competitions under the direction of an expert in sports medicine, but it notes that more research might be required to understand how caffeine should be used for best results [ 29 ].
The World Anti-Doping Agency does not prohibit or limit caffeine use [ ]. L-citrulline is a nonessential amino acid produced in the body, mainly from glutamine, and obtained from the diet.
Watermelon is the best-known source; 1 cup diced seedless watermelon has about mg citrulline [ ]. The subsequent conversion of arginine to nitric oxide, a potent dilator of blood vessels, might be the mechanism by which citrulline could serve as an ergogenic aid. In fact, consumption of citrulline might be a more efficient way to raise blood arginine levels than consumption of arginine because more citrulline is absorbed from the gut than arginine.
Most studies have used citrulline malate, a combination of citrulline with malic acid a constituent in many fruits that is also produced endogenously , because malate, an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, might enhance energy production [ 30 ]. The research to support supplemental citrulline as an ergogenic aid is limited and conflicting at best.
The few published studies have had heterogeneous designs and ranged in duration from 1 to 16 days. As an example, in one randomized controlled study with a crossover design, 41 healthy male weightlifters age 22—37 years consumed 8 g citrulline malate or a placebo 1 hour before completing barbell bench presses to exhaustion [ ].
Overall, participants could complete significantly more repetitions when taking the supplement and reported significantly less muscle soreness 1 and 2 days after the test.
Another study that randomized 17 young healthy men and women to take citrulline without malate either 3 g before testing or 9 g over 24 hours or a placebo found that participants using the citrulline did not perform as well as those taking the placebo on an incremental treadmill test to exhaustion [ ].
Although citrulline supplementation might increase plasma levels of nitric oxide metabolites, such a response has not been directly related to any improvement in athletic performance [ 30 ]. Studies have not adequately assessed the safety of citrulline, particularly when users take it in supplemental form for months at a time.
In the study of weight lifters described above, 6 of the 41 participants reported stomach discomfort after taking the supplement [ ]. The research to date does not provide strong support for taking citrulline or citrulline malate to enhance exercise or athletic performance [ 30 ].
Whether athletes in specific sports or activities might benefit from taking supplemental citrulline remains to be determined [ ]. Dietary supplements that contain citrulline provide either citrulline or citrulline malate.
Citrulline malate is Sellers of some citrulline malate dietary supplements claim that they provide a higher percentage of citrulline with labels listing, for example, citrulline malate or tri-citrulline malate , but studies have not determined whether these supplements are superior to standard citrulline or citrulline malate supplements.
Creatine is one of the most thoroughly studied and widely used dietary supplements to enhance exercise and sports performance [ ]. Creatine is produced endogenously and obtained from the diet in small amounts.
It helps generate ATP and thereby supplies the muscles with energy, particularly for short-term events [ ]. A person weighing pounds has about g creatine and phosphocreatine in his or her body, almost all in the skeletal and cardiac muscles [ ].
However, it is only when users consume much greater amounts of creatine over time as a dietary supplement that it could have ergogenic effects. Metabolized creatine is converted into the waste product creatinine, which is eliminated from the body through the kidneys.
Studies in both laboratory and sports settings have found that short-term creatine supplementation for 5 to 7 days in both men and women often significantly increases strength e. In one example, a study randomized 14 healthy, resistance-trained men age 19—29 years to receive 25 g creatine monohydrate or a placebo for 6—7 days [ ].
Participants taking the supplement had significant improvements in peak power output during all five sets of jump squats and in repetitions during all five sets of bench presses on three occasions. Compared with those taking the placebo, participants taking the creatine improved their performance in both meter sprints and six intermittent m sprints.
Supplementation with creatine over weeks or months helps training adaptations to structured, increased workloads over time. Individuals have varied responses to creatine supplementation, based on factors such as diet and the relative percentages of various muscle fiber types [ , ].
Vegetarians, for example, with their lower muscle creatine content, might have greater responses to supplementation than meat eaters. Overall, creatine enhances performance during repeated short bursts of high-intensity, intermittent activity, such as sprinting and weight lifting, where energy for this predominantly anaerobic exercise comes mainly from the ATP-creatine phosphate energy system [ 38 , ].
Creatine supplementation seems to be of little value for endurance sports, such as distance running or swimming, that do not depend on the short-term ATP-creatine phosphate system to provide short-term energy, and it leads to weight gain that might impede performance in such sports [ , ].
Furthermore, in predominantly aerobic exercise lasting more than seconds, the body relies on oxidative phosphorylation as the primary energy source, a metabolic pathway that does not require creatine [ ].
Studies have found no consistent set of side effects from creatine use, except that it often leads to weight gain, because it increases water retention and possibly stimulates muscle protein synthesis [ , ]. Several studies have found that supplemental creatine monohydrate, when used for a strength-training program, can lead to a 1—2 kg increase in total body weight in a month [ 73 ].
Creatine is considered safe for short-term use by healthy adults [ 12 , , , ]. In addition, evidence shows that use of the product for several years is safe [ , ]. Anecdotal reactions to creatine use include nausea, diarrhea and related gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramps, and heat intolerance.
Creatine supplementation may reduce the range of motion of various parts of the body such as the shoulders, ankles, and lower legs and lead to muscle stiffness and resistance to stretching [ ].
Adequate hydration while taking creatine might minimize these uncommon risks [ ]. In a position statement, the AND, DoC, and ACSM advise that creatine enhances performance of cycles of high-intensity exercise followed by short recovery periods and improves training capacity [ 12 ].
In its position statement, the ISSN states that creatine monohydrate is the most effective nutritional supplement currently available for enhancing capacity for high-intensity exercise and lean body mass during exercise [ ]. The ISSN contends that athletes who supplement with creatine have a lower incidence of injuries and exercise-related side effects compared to those who do not take creatine [ ].
The Australian Institute of Sport supports the use of creatine for improving sports performance in suitable athletic competitions under the direction of an expert in sports medicine, but it notes that more research might be required to understand how the supplement should be used for best results [ 29 ].
In some studies, the loading dose is based on body weight e. Other, usually more expensive, forms of creatine e. Deer antler velvet consists of cartilage and epidermis from growing deer or elk antlers before ossification [ , ]. It is used as a general health aid in traditional Chinese medicine.
Several growth factors have been detected in deer antler velvet, such as IGF-1, that could promote muscle tissue growth in a similar way to the quick growth of deer antlers. Three randomized controlled trials in a total of 95 young and middle-age men and 21 young females provide virtually no evidence that deer antler velvet supplements improve aerobic or anaerobic performance, muscular strength, or endurance [ , ].
The supplements provided no significant ergogenic effects compared with placebo. Studies have not adequately assessed the safety of deer antler velvet.
The studies cited above found no side effects in participants taking deer-antler-velvet supplements. IGF-1 is available as a prescription medication, and its reported side effects include hypoglycemia, headache, edema, and joint pain [ ].
An evaluation of six deer-antler-velvet dietary supplements that were commercially available in found that five of them contained no deer IGF-1, and four were adulterated with human IGF-1 [ ].
Only one of the six supplements contained a low level of deer IGF The research to date does not support taking deer-antler-velvet supplements to enhance exercise or athletic performance. The National Collegiate Athletic Association [ ] and the World Anti-Doping Agency [ ] ban the use of IGF-1 and its analogues in athletic competition.
DHEA is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex. The body can convert DHEA to the male hormone testosterone; testosterone's intermediary, androstenedione; and the female hormone estradiol [ ].
Testosterone is an anabolic steroid that promotes gains in muscle mass and strength when combined with resistance training [ ]. The minimal research on DHEA's use to enhance exercise and athletic performance provides no evidence of benefit [ ].
Compared to placebo, the DHEA and androstenedione produced no statistically significant increase in strength, aerobic capacity, lean body mass, or testosterone levels [ ].
The supplement provided no benefits compared with placebo in increasing muscle strength, lean body mass, or testosterone concentrations [ ]. Studies have not adequately assessed the safety of DHEA.
The two short-term studies in men described above found no side effects from the DHEA; blood lipid levels and liver function remained normal. Other studies have found that in women, use of DHEA for months significantly raises serum testosterone but not estrogen levels, which can cause acne and growth of facial hair [ ].
The research to date does not support taking DHEA supplements to enhance exercise or athletic performance. The National Collegiate Athletic Association and the World Anti-Doping Agency ban the use of DHEA [ , ].
Ginseng is a generic term for botanicals from the genus Panax. Some popular varieties are known as Chinese, Korean, American, and Japanese ginseng. Preparations made from ginseng roots have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for millennia as a tonic to improve stamina and vitality [ ].
So-called Siberian or Russian ginseng Eleutherococcus senticosus , although unrelated to Panax ginseng, has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine to combat fatigue and strengthen the immune system [ ]. Numerous small studies, with and without placebo controls, have investigated Panax ginseng's potential to improve the physical performance of athletes, regular and occasional exercisers, and largely sedentary individuals.
In almost all cases, the studies found that Panax ginseng in various doses and preparations had no ergogenic effect on such measures as peak power output, time to exhaustion, perceived exertion, recovery from intense activity, oxygen consumption, or heart rate [ , ].
One review of studies of the effects of Siberian ginseng on endurance performance found that the five studies with the most rigorous research protocols with a total of 55 men and 24 women showed no effect of supplementation for up to 6 weeks on exercise performed for up to minutes [ ].
Short-term Panax ginseng use appears to be safe; the most commonly reported adverse effects include headache, sleep disturbances, and gastrointestinal disorders [ ]. Short-term Siberian ginseng use also appears to be safe. The studies cited above reported no adverse effects, although other reports of clinical trials have listed insomnia as a rare side effect [ ].
The research to date provides little support for taking ginseng to enhance exercise or athletic performance [ , ].
Glutamine is a key molecule in metabolism and energy production, and it contributes nitrogen for many critical biochemical reactions [ ]. It is an EAA for critically ill patients when the body's need for glutamine exceeds its capacity to produce sufficient amounts.
Few studies have examined the effect of glutamine supplementation alone as an ergogenic aid [ ]. One study randomized 31 male and female weightlifters to receive either glutamine 0. There were no significant differences between the two groups in measures of strength, torque, or lean tissue mass, demonstrating that glutamine had no effect on muscle performance, body composition, or muscle-protein degradation.
Another study compared the effect of glutamine four doses of 0. Supplementation with glutamine reduced the magnitude of strength loss, accelerated strength recovery, and diminished muscle soreness more quickly than placebo; these effects were more pronounced in the men.
Some athletes use glutamine supplements in the hope that they will attenuate exercise-induced immune impairment and reduce their risk of developing upper respiratory tract infections.
However, there is little research-based support for this benefit [ , ]. In the studies described above, the glutamine had no reported side effects. Many patients with serious catabolic illnesses, such as infections, intestinal diseases, and burns, take glutamine safely as part of their medical care.
Daily oral doses ranging from 0. The research to date does not support taking glutamine alone to improve exercise and athletic performance [ , ]. Iron is an essential mineral and a structural component of hemoglobin, an erythrocyte protein that transfers oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and myoglobin, a protein in muscles that provides them with oxygen.
Iron is also necessary to metabolize substrates for energy as a component of cytochromes and to dehydrogenase enzymes involved in substrate oxidation [ ]. Iron deficiency impairs oxygen-carrying capacity and muscle function, and it limits people's ability to exercise and be active [ 12 , ].
Its detrimental effects can include fatigue and lethargy, lower aerobic capacity, and slower times in performance trials [ ]. Iron balance is an important consideration for athletes who must pay attention to both iron intakes and iron losses.
Teenage girls and premenopausal women are at increased risk of obtaining insufficient amounts of iron from their diets. They require more iron than teenage boys and men because they lose considerable iron due to menstruation, and they might not eat sufficient amounts of iron-containing foods [ , ].
Athletes of both sexes lose additional iron for several reasons [ , , , ]. Physical activity produces acute inflammation that reduces iron absorption from the gut and iron use via a peptide, hepcidin, that regulates iron homeostasis.
Iron is also lost in sweat. The destruction of erythrocytes in the feet because of frequent striking on hard surfaces leads to foot-strike hemolysis.
When you finish a workout, Quick and lasting weight loss do you Athleyic most Athlftic from Athleic trainer or coach? The typical advice is Calorie intake for vegans stretch, roll out, and drink Athletic performance nutrition. The goal is for your body to recover from the physical demands of exercise so that it can effectively absorb the benefits of solid training. This standard list of recovery to-dos is missing something essential: nutrition. Sports nutrition for recovery is an indispensable tool that supports athletic performance, mitigates the risk of injury, improves energy levels, and builds strength.
Sports nutrition is Calorie intake for vegans study nutritlon application Athlehic how to use nutrition to support Athletic performance nutrition mutrition of athletic performance. This includes providing Calorie intake for vegans on the nnutrition foods, nutrients, hydration protocols, and supplements Herbal dietary supplements help you pertormance in your sport. An important factor that distinguishes sports nutrition from general nutrition is that athletes may need different amounts of nutrients than non-athletes. However, a good amount of sports nutrition advice is applicable to most athletes, regardless of their sport. In general, the foods you choose should be minimally processed to maximize their nutritional value. You should also minimize added preservatives and avoid excessive sodium. Just make sure the macronutrients are in line with your goals.
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