Department of Agriculture and U. Department of Health and Human Services, Mean intakes of foods and nutrients were estimated from all days of diet records. Exposure variables for these analyses included saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat, including omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs.

The omega-3 PUFAs available through the NDS system are linolenic acid , stearidonic acid , eicosapentaenoic acid , docosapentaenoic acid , and docosahexaenoic acid. The available omega-6 PUFAs include linoleic acid and arachidonic acid. Routine laboratory assessments for lipids at exam six were conducted following a 8-h fast.

Plasma lipid levels LDL-C, HDL-C, TG were determined in the Framingham lipoprotein cholesterol laboratory following Centers for Disease Control guidelines McNamara and Schaefer, for measured or estimated cholesterol content.

Lipoprotein particle sizes and concentrations for HDL, LDL, and very low density lipoprotein VLDL were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic assay.

The average weighted lipoprotein particle size nm diameter was computed as the sum of the size of each subclass multiplied by the percent of its relative mass as estimated by the amplitude of its nuclear magnetic resonance signal.

Since lipid particles were only measured at exam four, and thus they were analyzed cross-sectionally here Figure 1. Adiposity, fibrinogen levels and 8-h fasting glucose were assessed at exam 6, 4 years after baseline.

The first available measure for Interleukin-6 IL-6 after baseline was at exam 7 and used in this analyses Figure 1. General adiposity was measured using BMI and percent body fat. Percent body fat was estimated using a single bioelectrical impedance analysis BIA, RJL Systems following a previously described validated protocol Lukaski et al.

Abdominal adiposity was measured using the waist-to-height ratio WHtR. Waist circumference was measured at the level of the umbilicus during mid-respiration to the nearest 0.

Waist circumference was divided by averaged height to calculate WHtR with missing values at exam 6 being substituted using the mean values from exams 5 and 7.

IL-6 and fibrinogen were measured with commercially available enzyme-linked immunoassay kits. We explored several potential confounding factors in the multivariable models.

Education level and physical activity were self-reported. Information on education was assessed at exam 2 and classified as high school or above vs. less than high school. Physical activity as assessed by a questionnaire at examination visit 5 Kannel and Sorlie, was used to calculate a baseline physical activity index by multiplying daily hours of moderate and vigorous activity by an appropriate weight based on oxygen consumption required for that level of exercise Kannel et al.

Cigarette smoking status and amount smoked were assessed at every exam by interview, and total pack-years of cigarette smoking were updated at each exam; we used updated data from the baseline exam visit exam 5 in these analyses. Age at menopause was assessed by interview at each exam exams until the occurrence of menopause.

The following dietary factors during exams were also explored as potential confounding variables: a energy-adjusted and weight-adjusted intakes of monounsaturated fat for total, omega-3, and omega-6 PUFA models , polyunsaturated fat for SFA and MUFA models , protein, and dietary fiber; b servings per day of foods such as fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, c energy intake kilocalories per day ; and d Healthy Eating Index HEI scores Krebs-Smith et al.

Given the strong interplay between fatty acid and carbohydrate metabolism, we also explored effect modification and confounding by energy-adjusted and body weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes. Finally, we explored co-morbidities as of the baseline visit at exam 5 for these analyses, including prevalence of hypertension and diabetes status, as determined at each examination visit, as well as baseline lipid-lowering and antihypertensive medications use.

There were strong correlations between energy-adjusted vs. body weight-adjusted intakes among those with plausible intakes but weaker correlations among those with implausible energy intakes.

Thus, we chose to adjust dietary fat intake for body weight rather than energy intake to minimize the impact of biased reporting of energy intake. Non-normally distributed variables were log-transformed, including TG, IL-6, fibrinogen, and VLDL particle concentrations. Confounding was assessed by adding each factor one at a time to the age- and sex-adjusted models, then building the model forward by adding each individual confounder singly to the model and avoiding collinearity.

Sex-specific final models included age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack-years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes. None of the other potential confounders altered the effect estimates and were thus dropped from the final models.

Statistical Analysis Systems software, version 9·4 SAS Institute, Cary, NC , was used to perform all analyses. Sex-specific characteristics according to categories of saturated fat intake are shown in Table 1.

Women and men with higher vs. lower saturated fat intakes were somewhat younger and had lower BMI and HEI scores at baseline. They also had higher intakes of dairy, nuts and seeds, but not higher intakes of fruits and vegetables, poultry, or fish.

Red meat intake was positively associated with saturated fat intake in both women and men. Further, women but not men in the highest intake category for saturated fat were slightly more likely to have a higher education level. Men with higher saturated fat intakes were also much more likely to be current smokers TABLE 1.

Sex-specific characteristics of participants according to weight-adjusted intakes of saturated fats. Sex-specific baseline characteristics associated with categories of monounsaturated fat intake are shown in Supplementary Table S1. Results for both women and men are very similar to those for saturated fat intakes.

Supplementary Table S2 shows the participant characteristics associated with intakes of total polyunsaturated fat.

Women, in particular, with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat, had higher education levels. Both women and men with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat had slightly higher mean diet quality scores on the HEI, higher intakes of fruits and vegetables, and higher intakes of all protein food sources.

Further, women and men with higher polyunsaturated fat consumption were substantially less likely to be current smokers i. Sex-specific adjusted mean levels of plasma lipids associated with intake categories of saturated and monounsaturated fats are shown in Figure 3 , and those for polyunsaturated fats including omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs in Figure 4.

The final models were adjusted for age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes. Higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fats were associated with higher adjusted mean levels of HDL-C, lower mean levels of TGs, and a lower TG:HDL ratio in both women and men.

Sex-specific differences were noted for the associations of polyunsaturated fats with lipid levels. In women, higher intakes of both omega-3s and omega-6s PUFAs were associated with lower TG:HDL ratio due mainly to higher HDL levels, while in men, only omega-3s led to a lower TG:HDL ratio.

There was no indication that dietary fat of any type was associated with higher mean LDL-C levels. FIGURE 3. Associations of saturated and monounsaturated fat intakes with blood levels of HDL-C A , fasting LDL-C B , log-transformed fasting TGs C , and TG:HDL ratio D in women and men.

All models were adjusted for age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes. FIGURE 4. Associations of total, omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fat intakes on blood levels of HDL-C A , fasting LDL-C B , log-transformed fasting TGs C , and TG:HDL ratio D in women and men.

In addition to lipid levels, we also show cross-sectional sex-specific associations between dietary fats and adjusted mean lipoprotein particle sizes Figure 5 and concentrations Figure 6.

Overall, higher intakes of all types of dietary fat tended to be positively associated with HDL particle size in both women and men. However, higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fats were associated with beneficial higher mean LDL particle sizes in men only.

Regarding lipoprotein concentrations, higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fat intakes were favorably associated with all lipoprotein concentrations HDL, LDL, and VLDL in both women and men.

Women with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fats also had higher mean HDL and lower mean LDL and VLDL particle concentrations, while men had no different concentration levels between the intake categories of polyunsaturated fats. FIGURE 5. Cross-sectional associations of dietary fat intakes on lipid particle sizes of HDL A , LDL B and VLDL C in women and men.

FIGURE 6. Cross-sectional associations of dietary fat intakes on lipid particle concentrations of HDL A , LDL B and VLDL C in women and men. After adjusting for confounding by age, carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack-years of cigarette smoking, and prevalent diabetes, these results show that higher vs.

lower intakes of any type of fat were associated with lower BMI levels, a lower percent body fat, and a smaller waist-to-height ratio in women. Only saturated fat was inversely associated with all three measures of adiposity in men. Finally, monounsaturated fats and omega-6 PUFAs were inversely associated with BMI among men Table 2.

TABLE 2. Sex-specific mean levels of adiposity associated with weight-adjusted intakes of dietary fats. There were no associations between saturated or monounsaturated fats and inflammatory biomarkers or fasting glucose among women.

However, among men, there was an inverse association between saturated fat consumption and log-transformed fibrinogen levels; among women, omega-3 PUFAs were inversely associated with IL There were no associations between any dietary fats and fasting glucose levels Table 3. TABLE 3. Sex-specific mean levels of inflammatory biomarkers and fasting glucose levels associated with weight-adjusted intakes of dietary fats.

In this US community-based cohort of mainly Caucasian women and men, we found no evidence to support an adverse relationship between any type of dietary fat and several cardiometabolic risk factors, including lipids, adiposity, inflammation, and glucose. We found that saturated and monounsaturated fat intakes tended to be favorably associated with TG:HDL ratio in both women and men.

However, sex-specific differences were noted for the associations of polyunsaturated fat intake on lipid levels. Women who consumed more omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs had a lower mean TG:HDL ratio, while among men, only omega-3 PUFAs were inversely associated.

In addition to these associations with serum lipid levels, we also found that all types of dietary fat were associated with larger protective HDL particle sizes in both men and women. Women with higher intakes of all fat types also had higher concentrations of HDL particles, while for men, this was the case only in association with saturated and monounsaturated fats.

In general, dietary fats tended to be associated with lower LDL and VLDL particle concentrations. Once again, this was the case for all types of dietary fats among women, while in men, these findings were evident only in associations with saturated and monounsaturated fats. We also noted that a higher intake of saturated fat was associated with less adiposity in both women and men.

In addition, higher saturated fat intakes were associated with lower abdominal adiposity in both sexes, while unsaturated fat was only associated with less adiposity in women.

Lastly, there were a few differences in the associations between dietary fats and inflammatory markers between women and men. In women, there was some evidence of a beneficial association between polyunsaturated fat and IL-6 levels, whereas saturated fat was inversely associated with fibrinogen levels in men.

Our results contradict the long-held belief that high saturated fat is associated with an atherogenic lipid profile. The rationale for this was based on selected trials Hooper et al. The LIPGENE study, which is the largest diet intervention study among weight-stable individuals with metabolic syndrome from 18 European countries, also failed to show adverse associations with several lipid and apolipoprotein concentrations after reducing saturated fat intakes.

Authors suggested that the absence of a reduction in LDL was due to individuals with higher BMI exhibiting smaller than expected reductions in LDL-C in response to reductions in dietary saturated fat intakes Tierney et al.

However, a subsequent randomized control trial of overweight and obese individuals without diabetes in the absence of weight loss showed that a high versus low saturated fat diet mainly from dairy sources had no differences in LDL, HDL, or TGs levels after adjustment for BMI Chiu et al.

Consistent with our results, the LIPGENE study also showed that high saturated or monounsaturated fat diets were associated with a lower atherogenic index Tierney et al. In the present study, sex was an important determinant for the associations between polyunsaturated fats and lipid profiles.

In women, omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs were associated with higher mean levels of HDL and lower mean levels of TG:HDL ratio, while in men, omega-3s only led to a lower TG:HDL ratio because of concurrent higher HDL and lower TGs means.

Overall, information on the sex-specific differences in the associations of various types of fats on lipids is limited. Consistent with our results, in the LIPGENE study, omega-3 PUFA supplementation led to reduced TGs in men only.

Potential mechanisms could be the longer residence time of VLDL TGs in men enabling greater clearance by omega-3 PUFAs and greater metabolic utilization of long-chain omega-3s in men Tierney et al. Further, it is known that men tend to have higher concentrations of small dense LDL particles, higher LDL levels, and TG levels, all features of an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype compared with that observed in premenopausal women Swiger et al.

Foods that Cause Inflammation: Foods that are linked to an inflammatory response include: saturated fats which are found in animal products, such as red meat and whole fat dairy products, trans fats which are found in fried foods and baked goods such as pastries, pizza dough, pie crust, cookies and crackers, omega-6 polyunsaturated fats which are found in corn, safflower, soybean and sunflower oils, and are often found in many packaged foods and suga r ; which is the biggest enemy in the inflammation battle.

Foods that Combat Inflammation: Olive oil , peanut oil , nuts and avocados contain monounsaturated fats and possess anti-inflammatory properties. Our website uses cookies This website uses cookies to give you the very best experience.

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The word "saturated" here refers to the number of hydrogen atoms surrounding each carbon atom. The chain of carbon atoms holds as many hydrogen atoms as possible — it's saturated with hydrogens.

Is saturated fat bad for you? A diet rich in saturated fats can drive up total cholesterol, and tip the balance toward more harmful LDL cholesterol, which prompts blockages to form in arteries in the heart and elsewhere in the body.

A handful of recent reports have muddied the link between saturated fat and heart disease. One meta-analysis of 21 studies said that there was not enough evidence to conclude that saturated fat increases the risk of heart disease, but that replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat may indeed reduce risk of heart disease.

Two other major studies narrowed the prescription slightly, concluding that replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fats like vegetable oils or high-fiber carbohydrates is the best bet for reducing the risk of heart disease, but replacing saturated fat with highly processed carbohydrates could do the opposite.

Good fats come mainly from vegetables, nuts, seeds, and fish. They differ from saturated fats by having fewer hydrogen atoms bonded to their carbon chains. Healthy fats are liquid at room temperature, not solid.

There are two broad categories of beneficial fats: monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats. When you dip your bread in olive oil at an Italian restaurant, you're getting mostly monounsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fats have a single carbon-to-carbon double bond.

The result is that it has two fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fat and a bend at the double bond. This structure keeps monounsaturated fats liquid at room temperature. Good sources of monounsaturated fats are olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, and most nuts, as well as high-oleic safflower and sunflower oils.

The discovery that monounsaturated fat could be healthful came from the Seven Countries Study during the s. It revealed that people in Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean region enjoyed a low rate of heart disease despite a high-fat diet.

The main fat in their diet, though, was not the saturated animal fat common in countries with higher rates of heart disease. It was olive oil, which contains mainly monounsaturated fat. This finding produced a surge of interest in olive oil and the " Mediterranean diet ," a style of eating regarded as a healthful choice today.

Although there's no recommended daily intake of monounsaturated fats, the National Academy of Medicine recommends using them as much as possible along with polyunsaturated fats to replace saturated and trans fats.

Polyunsaturated fats. When you pour liquid cooking oil into a pan, there's a good chance you're using polyunsaturated fat. Corn oil, sunflower oil, and safflower oil are common examples.

Polyunsaturated fats are essential fats. That means they're required for normal body functions, but your body can't make them. So, you must get them from food. Polyunsaturated fats are used to build cell membranes and the covering of nerves.

They are needed for blood clotting, muscle movement, and inflammation. A polyunsaturated fat has two or more double bonds in its carbon chain. There are two main types of polyunsaturated fats: omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids.

The numbers refer to the distance between the beginning of the carbon chain and the first double bond. Both types offer health benefits.

Eating polyunsaturated fats in place of saturated fats or highly refined carbohydrates reduces harmful LDL cholesterol and improves the cholesterol profile. It also lowers triglycerides.

Good sources of omega-3 fatty acids include fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines, flaxseeds, walnuts, canola oil, and un-hydrogenated soybean oil.

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Download references. Product Development and Advisory Services, Malaysian Palm Oil Board MPOB , 6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang, , Selangor, Malaysia. Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Kim-Tiu Teng. TKT and KN are providing consulting services to the Malaysian Palm Oil Board MPOB.

No potential conflict of interest was reported by CCY and CLF. TKT, CCY and CLF contributed to the conception and design of the review as well as drafting. CCY, TKT and CLF performed the literature search. TKT and KN revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd.

Reprints and permissions. Teng, KT. et al. Modulation of obesity-induced inflammation by dietary fats: mechanisms and clinical evidence. Nutr J 13 , 12 Download citation. Received : 12 April Accepted : 13 January Published : 29 January Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

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Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Download ePub. Abstract Obesity plays a pivotal role in the development of low-grade inflammation.

Introduction Obesity is a global epidemic in both developed and developing countries. Obesity-induced inflammation Numerous studies found that compared to healthy lean individuals, overweight and obese individuals have higher pro-inflammatory cytokines and lower anti-inflammatory cytokines [ 15 , 16 ].

Modulation of inflammation by dietary fatty acids: mechanistic insights Saturated fatty acids Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shed light on the inflammatory effect of SFA [ 27 — 29 ].

But others may increase your inflammation and harm your overall health. Learn which fats you should limit and which to avoid in an arthritis-friendly diet. Fats to Limit. Get involved with the arthritis community. Fats and Oils to Avoid Learn which fats to limit in an anti-inflammatory diet.

Fats to Limit Saturated Fat Found in meat, butter and cheese, saturated fats stay solid at room temperature. Saturated fats can raise your total cholesterol and your LDL, or bad, cholesterol levels. That would be no more than 20 grams of saturated fat per day for a person consuming calories.

Saturated Fat from Coconut Oil There might be one exception in the saturated fat category — coconut oil. While animal studies have shown that higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat have anti-inflammatory Fritsche, and anti-obesity effects Buckley and Howe, , the findings in humans are weaker.

More research on the associations of polyunsaturated fats, including omega-3s and omega-6s, on cardiometabolic risk, is needed. Saturated fat is usually associated with the consumption of more energy-dense foods.

However, a recent systematic review of a few trials found that a reduction in saturated fat intake vs. a usual diet led to small reductions in body mass index BMI Hooper et al. Evidence from long-term studies is lacking. Given that the lipoprotein metabolism and body fat distribution differ between women and men Knopp et al.

This study evaluated sex-specific associations between dietary intakes of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated including total, omega-3, and omega-6 fats and cardiometabolic risk factors in the Framingham Offspring Cohort.

Specifically, we separately examined associations between different types of dietary fats and lipid levels, particle concentrations and sizes, body fat, biomarkers of inflammation, and fasting glucose in women and men. The Framingham Offspring Cohort enrolled adults in who were the offspring of participants in the original Framingham Heart Study.

Approximately every 4 years, participants were asked to complete questionnaires on health status, lifestyle, and demographic information and to undergo anthropometric measurements and blood tests.

Dietary information from food records was collected and averaged from exams three to five , so we considered exam five to be the baseline for these analyses. Figure 1 shows the timeframe of data collection for the exposure and outcomes for these analyses. An earlier published preprint includes some of the results in this manuscript Yiannakou et al.

All participants provided written informed consent. FIGURE 1. Timeframe for data collection of dietary variables and cardiometabolic outcomes for these analyses in the Offspring Cohort.

Figure 2 provides inclusion and exclusion details for the current analyses. Examination visit 5 served as the baseline visit for these analyses. This left participants. We further excluded 63 who were missing potential confounding variables and who were missing all of the outcome measures of interest i.

Sample sizes for individual cardiometabolic risk factors differ and are shown in Figure 2. FIGURE 2. Flow diagram of the analyses in the Offspring Cohort. Approximately 16, days of diet records were collected, with each set including two weekdays and one weekend day.

Instructions were provided by a trained nutritionist and included the use of two-dimensional food models to estimate portion sizes. Nutrient composition of the diet was derived by entering the diet records into the Nutrition Data System NDS of the University of Minnesota, version 23 Schakel et al.

Intakes in each USDA food group were derived by linking food code data from the NDS with USDA food codes using the MyPyramid Equivalents Database, version 06A U. Department of Agriculture and U. Department of Health and Human Services, Mean intakes of foods and nutrients were estimated from all days of diet records.

Exposure variables for these analyses included saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat, including omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs.

The omega-3 PUFAs available through the NDS system are linolenic acid , stearidonic acid , eicosapentaenoic acid , docosapentaenoic acid , and docosahexaenoic acid.

The available omega-6 PUFAs include linoleic acid and arachidonic acid. Routine laboratory assessments for lipids at exam six were conducted following a 8-h fast. Plasma lipid levels LDL-C, HDL-C, TG were determined in the Framingham lipoprotein cholesterol laboratory following Centers for Disease Control guidelines McNamara and Schaefer, for measured or estimated cholesterol content.

Lipoprotein particle sizes and concentrations for HDL, LDL, and very low density lipoprotein VLDL were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic assay. The average weighted lipoprotein particle size nm diameter was computed as the sum of the size of each subclass multiplied by the percent of its relative mass as estimated by the amplitude of its nuclear magnetic resonance signal.

Since lipid particles were only measured at exam four, and thus they were analyzed cross-sectionally here Figure 1. Adiposity, fibrinogen levels and 8-h fasting glucose were assessed at exam 6, 4 years after baseline.

The first available measure for Interleukin-6 IL-6 after baseline was at exam 7 and used in this analyses Figure 1. General adiposity was measured using BMI and percent body fat. Percent body fat was estimated using a single bioelectrical impedance analysis BIA, RJL Systems following a previously described validated protocol Lukaski et al.

Abdominal adiposity was measured using the waist-to-height ratio WHtR. Waist circumference was measured at the level of the umbilicus during mid-respiration to the nearest 0. Waist circumference was divided by averaged height to calculate WHtR with missing values at exam 6 being substituted using the mean values from exams 5 and 7.

IL-6 and fibrinogen were measured with commercially available enzyme-linked immunoassay kits. We explored several potential confounding factors in the multivariable models. Education level and physical activity were self-reported.

Information on education was assessed at exam 2 and classified as high school or above vs. less than high school. Physical activity as assessed by a questionnaire at examination visit 5 Kannel and Sorlie, was used to calculate a baseline physical activity index by multiplying daily hours of moderate and vigorous activity by an appropriate weight based on oxygen consumption required for that level of exercise Kannel et al.

Cigarette smoking status and amount smoked were assessed at every exam by interview, and total pack-years of cigarette smoking were updated at each exam; we used updated data from the baseline exam visit exam 5 in these analyses.

Age at menopause was assessed by interview at each exam exams until the occurrence of menopause. The following dietary factors during exams were also explored as potential confounding variables: a energy-adjusted and weight-adjusted intakes of monounsaturated fat for total, omega-3, and omega-6 PUFA models , polyunsaturated fat for SFA and MUFA models , protein, and dietary fiber; b servings per day of foods such as fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, c energy intake kilocalories per day ; and d Healthy Eating Index HEI scores Krebs-Smith et al.

Given the strong interplay between fatty acid and carbohydrate metabolism, we also explored effect modification and confounding by energy-adjusted and body weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes. Finally, we explored co-morbidities as of the baseline visit at exam 5 for these analyses, including prevalence of hypertension and diabetes status, as determined at each examination visit, as well as baseline lipid-lowering and antihypertensive medications use.

There were strong correlations between energy-adjusted vs. body weight-adjusted intakes among those with plausible intakes but weaker correlations among those with implausible energy intakes. Thus, we chose to adjust dietary fat intake for body weight rather than energy intake to minimize the impact of biased reporting of energy intake.

Non-normally distributed variables were log-transformed, including TG, IL-6, fibrinogen, and VLDL particle concentrations. Confounding was assessed by adding each factor one at a time to the age- and sex-adjusted models, then building the model forward by adding each individual confounder singly to the model and avoiding collinearity.

Sex-specific final models included age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack-years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes.

None of the other potential confounders altered the effect estimates and were thus dropped from the final models. Statistical Analysis Systems software, version 9·4 SAS Institute, Cary, NC , was used to perform all analyses.

Sex-specific characteristics according to categories of saturated fat intake are shown in Table 1. Women and men with higher vs.

lower saturated fat intakes were somewhat younger and had lower BMI and HEI scores at baseline. They also had higher intakes of dairy, nuts and seeds, but not higher intakes of fruits and vegetables, poultry, or fish.

Red meat intake was positively associated with saturated fat intake in both women and men. Further, women but not men in the highest intake category for saturated fat were slightly more likely to have a higher education level.

Men with higher saturated fat intakes were also much more likely to be current smokers TABLE 1. Sex-specific characteristics of participants according to weight-adjusted intakes of saturated fats. Sex-specific baseline characteristics associated with categories of monounsaturated fat intake are shown in Supplementary Table S1.

Results for both women and men are very similar to those for saturated fat intakes. Supplementary Table S2 shows the participant characteristics associated with intakes of total polyunsaturated fat.

Women, in particular, with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat, had higher education levels. Both women and men with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat had slightly higher mean diet quality scores on the HEI, higher intakes of fruits and vegetables, and higher intakes of all protein food sources.

Further, women and men with higher polyunsaturated fat consumption were substantially less likely to be current smokers i. Sex-specific adjusted mean levels of plasma lipids associated with intake categories of saturated and monounsaturated fats are shown in Figure 3 , and those for polyunsaturated fats including omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs in Figure 4.

The final models were adjusted for age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes.

Higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fats were associated with higher adjusted mean levels of HDL-C, lower mean levels of TGs, and a lower TG:HDL ratio in both women and men. Sex-specific differences were noted for the associations of polyunsaturated fats with lipid levels.

In women, higher intakes of both omega-3s and omega-6s PUFAs were associated with lower TG:HDL ratio due mainly to higher HDL levels, while in men, only omega-3s led to a lower TG:HDL ratio. There was no indication that dietary fat of any type was associated with higher mean LDL-C levels.

FIGURE 3. Associations of saturated and monounsaturated fat intakes with blood levels of HDL-C A , fasting LDL-C B , log-transformed fasting TGs C , and TG:HDL ratio D in women and men.

All models were adjusted for age, weight-adjusted carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack years of cigarette smoking, baseline BMI, and prevalent diabetes. FIGURE 4. Associations of total, omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fat intakes on blood levels of HDL-C A , fasting LDL-C B , log-transformed fasting TGs C , and TG:HDL ratio D in women and men.

In addition to lipid levels, we also show cross-sectional sex-specific associations between dietary fats and adjusted mean lipoprotein particle sizes Figure 5 and concentrations Figure 6.

Overall, higher intakes of all types of dietary fat tended to be positively associated with HDL particle size in both women and men. However, higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fats were associated with beneficial higher mean LDL particle sizes in men only.

Regarding lipoprotein concentrations, higher intakes of saturated and monounsaturated fat intakes were favorably associated with all lipoprotein concentrations HDL, LDL, and VLDL in both women and men. Women with higher intakes of polyunsaturated fats also had higher mean HDL and lower mean LDL and VLDL particle concentrations, while men had no different concentration levels between the intake categories of polyunsaturated fats.

FIGURE 5. Cross-sectional associations of dietary fat intakes on lipid particle sizes of HDL A , LDL B and VLDL C in women and men. FIGURE 6. Cross-sectional associations of dietary fat intakes on lipid particle concentrations of HDL A , LDL B and VLDL C in women and men.

After adjusting for confounding by age, carbohydrate intakes, HEI scores, use of lipid-lowering medications, pack-years of cigarette smoking, and prevalent diabetes, these results show that higher vs.

lower intakes of any type of fat were associated with lower BMI levels, a lower percent body fat, and a smaller waist-to-height ratio in women. Only saturated fat was inversely associated with all three measures of adiposity in men. Finally, monounsaturated fats and omega-6 PUFAs were inversely associated with BMI among men Table 2.

TABLE 2. Sex-specific mean levels of adiposity associated with weight-adjusted intakes of dietary fats. There were no associations between saturated or monounsaturated fats and inflammatory biomarkers or fasting glucose among women.

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A Western diet rich in fat and sugar may lead to inflammatory skin diseases such as psoriasis , a study by UC Davis Health researchers has found. The study , published today in Journal of Investigative Dermatology , suggests that dietary components, rather than obesity itself, may lead to skin inflammation and the development of psoriasis.

A common and chronic skin disease, psoriasis causes skin cells to form scales and red patches that are itchy and sometimes painful.

Previous studies have shown that obesity is a risk factor for the development or worsening of psoriasis. The Western diet, characterized by a high dietary intake of saturated fats and sucrose and low intake of fiber, has been linked to the increased prevalence of obesity in the world.

Hwang , professor and chair of dermatology at UC Davis and senior author on the study. For the UC Davis Health study, which used a mouse model, Hwang and his colleagues found that a diet containing both high fat and high sugar mimicking the Western diet in humans was required to induce observable skin inflammation.

In four weeks only, mice on Western diet had significantly increased ear swelling and visible dermatitis compared to mice fed a controlled diet and those on high fat diet alone.

The study detailed the mechanisms by which inflammation happens following a Western diet. It identified bile acids as key signaling molecules in the regulation of skin immunity. Bile acids are produced in the liver from cholesterol and metabolized in the intestine by the gut microbiota.

They play an important role in dietary lipid absorption and cholesterol balance in the blood. The study found that cholestyramine, a drug used to lower cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids in the intestine, helped reduce the risk of skin inflammation. The finding suggests that bile acids mediate the development of psoriasis.

The binding of cholestyramine to bile acids in the gut and its subsequent release through the stool allows for lowering of skin inflammation.

Further studies are needed to understand the mechanism behind diet-induced skin inflammation and the interaction between metabolism, microbes and immunity. Yellow and orange vegetables, such as carrots and sweet potatoes contain the phytonutrient carotenoids. The phytonutrient flavonoids are found in red and purple fruits, such as berries, grapes and apples.

The produce with the deeper and brighter colors generally contain the most antioxidants. Herbs, spices and teas also contain anti-inflammation antioxidants : dill, oregano, cinnamon, curry, garlic, ginger, tumeric and rosemary. The majority of teas including green, black and white also contain a concentrated amount of inflammation fighting antioxidants.

Unfortunately in our country there are still many heavily processed foods being offered and consumed. With nutrition education, awareness, and by making healthy substitutions, we can focus on making the small changes that can improve the nutrition quality we eat and our health.

Skip to content. The Connection Between Diet and Inflammation. Foods that Cause Inflammation: Foods that are linked to an inflammatory response include: saturated fats which are found in animal products, such as red meat and whole fat dairy products, trans fats which are found in fried foods and baked goods such as pastries, pizza dough, pie crust, cookies and crackers, omega-6 polyunsaturated fats which are found in corn, safflower, soybean and sunflower oils, and are often found in many packaged foods and suga r ; which is the biggest enemy in the inflammation battle.

Foods that Combat Inflammation: Olive oil , peanut oil , nuts and avocados contain monounsaturated fats and possess anti-inflammatory properties. Our website uses cookies This website uses cookies to give you the very best experience.

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