Cognitive function enhancement methods -
The Internet may be considered as a " powerful cognitive enhancement technology " [24] or as enabling "Internet-extended cognition" or "Web-extended minds" or "human-extended machine cognition". Substantial neuroenhancement potential therefore may lie in measures such as individual empowerment possibly via existing education systems , software development and better collaborative systems for sorting and categorizing information.
Quality standards, validation and authentication , sampling and lab testing are commonly substandard or absent for products thought to be cognitive enhancers, including dietary supplements. Neuroenhancement products are mentioned in entertainment productions, such as Limitless , which may to some degree probe and explore opportunities and threats of using such products.
In general, the younger population under the age of 25 feel that neuroenhancements are acceptable or that the decision lies in the hand of that individual. Healthcare officials and parents feel concerned due to safety factors, lack of complete information on these drugs, and possible irreversible adverse effects.
Such concerns have been shown to reduce the willingness to take such drugs. A German study among 6. A large-scale survey using a random sample of more than 5. It has been shown that consumers of neuroenhancement drugs are much more willing to also use them in the future, e. due to positive experiences or a tendency towards addiction.
Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.
Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons. Extension of cognition in the healthy. Main article: Modafinil.
Main article: Methylphenidate. See also: Food safety and Health policy. Upper photo of modafinil tablets acquired via the Internet; below photo is a mail order pharmacy dispenser.
European Neuropsychopharmacology. doi : PMID S2CID Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. August Brain Sciences.
ISSN Many experiences and events can cause stress, even if you don't realize it. From illness and injury to relationship conflict or work obligations, stress can creep into many different areas of life.
Even something as small as an average daily inconvenience can sometimes feel like a larger-than-life stressor when it is stacked against other sources of worry. Going through stress can make it more challenging to slow down and focus.
Luckily, being aware of stress is an essential first step in getting un-distracted and finding well-being. Being fatigued is more than feeling a little tired at the end of each day. When you're dealing with fatigue, you can feel drained. Lack of sleep, overworking, taking certain medications, and your nutrition can significantly affect how energized and clear-headed you feel each day.
When you're not getting your needs met or exceeding your boundaries, your body may respond with fatigue and an inability to think clearly. One essential question to ask is why you're experiencing fatigue. In many cases, fatigue can signify that something bigger is going on with your physical well-being, mental health, or lifestyle.
If you've experienced long stretches of physical and mental exhaustion, consider speaking to your healthcare provider about why that might be the case. In addition to stress and fatigue, many medical conditions correlate with brain fog and cognitive decline.
In some cases, you might have co-occurring stress and exhaustion from a persistent medical illness. Various medical conditions may have side effects impacting your memory performance and cognitive abilities, and you should consult your doctor if you suspect there may be a medical condition at play.
Your doctor may ultimately refer you to a specialist to help you develop a medical approach that accounts for your condition. Once you can identify the reasons you may have difficulty with focus and attention, you can begin to address these issues in your life and begin to see better days.
Here are a few excellent steps you can take when you're moving onward and upward toward sustained focus. Thanks to something called plasticity, your mind can grow and change to help you adopt new habits and mindsets and enhance your focus.
By testing out methods of cognitive enhancement, you can train your brain to commit to new habits. You deserve to step into stress-free clarity that lasts all day — and with a bit of trial and error, you just might find the cognitive enhancement strategy that works for you.
Fatigue Cleveland Clinic. How Meditation Can Help You Focus Columbia University School of Professional Studies. Taking Breaks Student Learning Programs Stanford University. Lemme Chill Gummies.
Matcha is a green tea powder that can offer unique wellness benefits. Lemme is here to talk about how matcha compares to other caffeine sources. Lemme is here to talk about prebiotics and probiotics, including their differences and how each contributes to digestive health. Prebiotics can support a well-balanced gut microbiome, which can in turn offer many health benefits.
Your gut health can impact your immune system. Lemme is here to talk about the connection and how the interplay can affect your overall wellness.
lemme get the full routine Notify me. Methylphenidate is a prescription drug with medical restrictions in several countries, therefore, many illegal analogues have emerged on the internet and darknet drug markets during the last few years The derivatives of methylphenidate that have been identified by NPSfinder ® include: 3,4-dichloromethylphenidate, 4-fluoromethylphenidate, 4-methylmethylphenidate, dexmethylphenidate, ethylphenidate, methylmorphenate , and methylnaphthidate.
No research studies are available regarding the misuse of these molecules by healthy subjects in order to ameliorate their cognitive function Table 6. The phenethylamines-related compounds that have been identified by NPSfinder ® are listed in Table 7.
These are stimulant, entactogenic, and hallucinogenic substances that share similar chemical structures with amphetamine, catecholamines, synthetic cathinones, and other molecules Phenethylamines are known to enhance mood and empathy in healthy subjects.
Substituted phenethylamines also include substituted amphetamines, which have been used as CEs to promote learning and memory but can ultimately lead to addiction Dolder et al.
To the best of our knowledge, there are no research studies or case reports focusing on the misuse of specific phenethylamines as CEs by healthy subjects. GABAergic drugs are chemicals that produce their effects via interactions with the GABA system, such as by stimulating or blocking neurotransmission f-phenibut , which is closely related to phenibut , is a central nervous system depressant 72 ; tolibut is a GABA analog that was developed in Russia 77 , similarly to picamilon , which is formed by a synthetic combination of niacin and γ -aminobutyric acid GABA.
Picamilon was developed in the Soviet Union in 78 and further studied in both Russia 79 and Japan 80 as a prodrug of GABA. Among Cannabimimetic drugs there are the synthetic cannabimimetics that are designer drugs that target the same receptors to which cannabinoids in cannabis plants, tetrahydrocannabinol THC and cannabidiol CBD bind 81 , dexanabinol , drinabant , Dronabinol , JZL , rimonabant , and URB were the six CEs belonging to this group that were identified by the NPSfinder ® Table 9.
The use of cannabimimetics as CEs seems counter-intuitive as both pre-clinical and human studies have found a link between consumption of cannabinoids and long-term deficits of cognitive functions, especially high-order cognitive functions 83 — However, recent pre-clinical studies have found that deltaTHC can improve cognitive performances in rats 89 and mice This is a tryptamine derivative closely related to both the serotonin and melatonin neurotransmitters To the best of our knowledge, there are no studies, surveys, or case reports that identified 5-MT as a drug used by healthy people in order to improve their cognitive abilities.
Jansen et al. Fipexide also known as attentil and vigilor Table 11 is the only substitute piperazine that has been identified by NPSfinder ® as a CE. This was initially developed in Italy in 94 and used as a CE in Italy and France for the treatment of dementia Fipexide is no longer in use due to the occurrence of rare side-effects 96 , Ethical issues raised by cognitive enhancement have been debated for over a decade 98 , and many experts have identified multiple ethical concerns including risks to mental and health safety On the other hand, it is of concern that the safety and efficacy of these drugs in healthy individuals in the long-term are still unclear.
While some CEs have been studied and research data on their mechanism of action and potential benefit are available, the action, the beneficial effects, and the potential side-effects of the majority of them have yet to be fully described and understood. Some of these drugs can cause dependence and have a significant range of harmful effects; they can be particularly dangerous to young people as their brains are not fully developed.
Studies producing null results and some evidence of task-specific impairments should be also noted The limited evidence of effectiveness as well as the potential side-effects should be cautiously considered by relevant legislative and regulatory bodies. In , the US Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues released a report on CE, reporting up-to-date findings and providing recommendations for clinicians The Australian Alcohol and Drug Foundation has recently raised doubts about the actual cognitive benefits of most CEs, indicating that scientific studies showed only little to no benefits for cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals, while the associated side-effects do pose significant risks to health and safety of the general public NPSfinder ® could also be an important tool for analytical toxicologists to focus their efforts on the detection of the most recently misused substances , An official, up-to-date, comprehensive list of CEs is not currently available in the literature.
The Early Warning Systems fail in the early detection of these substances as they are mostly legal products such as food supplements or prescribed medication, which are misused by healthy individuals to improve their cognitive abilities.
We based our classification on the one described by Schifano et al. We noted that another type of classification, such as the one described by Froestl et al. In fact, many CEs do not have a fully understood mechanism of action, which makes it difficult to link them to a specific category; other CEs have multiple mechanisms of actions i.
Furthermore, it is important to note that a limited number of languages were used for the screening of molecules on the web, and although many substances were first identified in seizures in Asia, only European languages are used.
For all these reasons, forming a comprehensive and definite classification of CEs remains a complex challenge.
CEs are a wide and diverse group of molecules, constantly growing in terms of numbers as well as availability among the general public and especially via online platforms.
CEs differ for pharmacological activity, time, and mode of action, targeted cognitive domain, pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, as well as possible short- and long-term side-effects. The popularity of chemicals that are potentially able to augment brain functions is not surprising in a society which constantly demands for increasingly high cognitive performances.
For the current official Early Warning Systems, it is challenging to identify and monitor the use of CEs as they are often sold as legal food supplements or as prescribed medication for a number of medical conditions. For this reason, NPSfinder ® can be considered as a helpful systematic tool which could update clinicians with the growing numbers and types of nootropics in the increasingly difficult-to-follow internet world.
Previously, Arillotta and colleagues 43 have identified novel opioids which were not listed in either international or European NPS databases, such as EMCDDA or UNODC.
This information is useful to stakeholders such as enforcement agents, emergency department, scientific community, prevention program setters, and other regulatory agencies.
The same applies to CEs; in particular, the early identification of substances that are misused as CEs and the discovery of novel CEs that were never reported or identified before are crucial to raise the awareness of regulatory bodies.
The identification of a drug is key to the treatment of its potential physical and psychiatric effects; if the drug is novel, its description may shed some light on its pharmacokinetics and toxicodynamics, which would in turn inform treatment decision-making in clinical settings.
The early identification and better understanding of the distribution and effects of CEs could promote both more effective prevention and harm reduction measures in clinical settings, including emergency departments, mental health and general practice clinics. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
FS and AV have conceived the idea of the manuscript and have coordinated the whole project. FN, CZ, DA, and LG have actually carried out the process of both data collection and systematization. FN performed the literature searching, the analysis of data and drafted the manuscript.
FS, JC, and AG supervised the manuscript and contributed to the final version of the manuscript. FS approved the final content of the manuscript.
JC provided data from the EMCDDA and UNODC databases for the purposes of this research. FS, JC, and AG have provided relevant epidemiological data and have contributed as well to the drafting and checking of the paper itself.
None of the authors of this paper was directly involved with the website development. AV has conceived the idea of a new early detention software for NPS, which was developed by the professionals at Damicom srl, a small enterprise from Rome Italy.
FS and AV have coordinated the testing of the web crawler. FN, CZ, and DA have suggested minor changes to the software which have made the screening process more precise and efficient. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The reviewer, SC, declared a shared affiliation, though no collaboration, with several of the authors, FN, FS, JMC, AG, DA, CZ, and AV to the handling editor. The authors are grateful to Damicom srl, a small enterprise from Rome Italy , whose professionals have developed the NPSfinder ® web crawler and so generously have allowed here the testing of its potential.
The authors are also grateful to the EMCDDA and UNODC for being able to use their databases for the purposes of this research. ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; CEs, cognitive enhancers; EDND, European Database on New Drugs; EMCDDA, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction; EWA, Early Warning Advisory; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; IPEDs, imaging and performance enhancing drugs; MPH, methylphenidate; NPS, novel psychoactive substances; SSRIs, Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors; UNODC, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
Bostrom N, Sandberg A. Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Sci Eng Ethics — doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Dresler M, Sandberg A, Bublitz C, Ohla K, Trenado C, Mroczko-Wąsowicz A, et al. Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement.
ACS Chem Neurosci — Giurgea C. Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology.
Actual Pharmacol Paris — PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Cond Reflex — Turner DC, Robbins TW, Clark L, Aron AR, Dowson J, Sahakian BJ. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacol Berl —9. CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Millan MJ, Agid Y, Brune M, Bullmore ET, Carter CS, Clayton NS, et al.
Cognitive dysfunction in psychiatric disorders: Characteristics, causes and the quest for improved therapy. Nat Rev Drug Discovery — Froestl W, Muhs A, Pfeifer A. Cognitive enhancers nootropics. Part 1: drugs interacting with receptors.
Part 2: drugs interacting with enzymes. J Alzheimers Dis a — Froestl W, Pfeifer A, Muhs A. Part 3: drugs interacting with targets other than receptors or enzymes. disease-modifying drugs. J Alzheimers Dis b — Fond G, Micoulaud-Franchi JA, Macgregor A, Richieri R, Miot S, Lopez R, et al. Neuroenhancement in Healthy Adults, Part I: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement: A Systematic Review.
J Clinic Res Bioeth Franke AG, Bonertz C, Christmann M, Huss M, Fellgiebel A, Hildt E, et al. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants and illicit use of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry —6. Taylor GP Jr, Keys RE. Modafinil and Management of Aircrew Fatigue.
United States Department of the Air Force: Washington, DC Google Scholar. Wheeler B. BBC News: London Mirza NR, Bright JL.
Nicotine-induced enhancements in the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats are strain-dependent. Psychopharmacology — Mirza NR, Stolerman IP.
Nicotine enhances sustained attention in the rat under specific task conditions. Rezvani AH, Levin ED. Nicotine-alcohol interactions and attentional performance on an operant visual signal detection task in female rats.
Pharmacol Biochem Behav — Rezvani AH, Kholdebarin E, Dawson E, Levin ED. Nicotine and clozapine effects on attentional performance impaired by the NMDA antagonist dizocilpine in female rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol — Cappelletti S, Piacentino D, Sani G, Aromatario M.
Caffeine: cognitive and physical performance enhancer or psychoactive drug? Curr Neuropharmacol — Onaolapo AY, Obelawo AY, Onaolapo OJ.
Brain Ageing, Cognition and Diet: A Review of the Emerging Roles of Food-Based Nootropics in Mitigating Age-Related Memory Decline. Curr Aging Sci — Dolder PC, Müller F, Schmid Y, Borgwardt SJ, Liechti ME.
Direct comparison of the acute subjective, emotional, autonomic, and endocrine effects of MDMA, methylphenidate, and modafinil in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacol Berl — Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: overview of key findings.
The University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research: Ann Arbor, MI Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services SAMHSA. Results from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings.
Rockville, MD: SAMHSA Swanson JM, Volkow ND. Increasing use of stimulants warns of potential abuse. Nature Urban KR, Gao WJ. Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain.
Front Syst Neurosci Arnsten AF, Li BM. Neurobiology of executive functions: catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions.
Biol Psychiatry — Arnsten AF. Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nat Rev Neurosci a — Toward a new understanding of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pathophysiology: an important role for prefrontal cortex dysfunction.
CNS Drugs b 1 Suppl. Urban KR, Li YC, Gao WJ. Treatment with a clinically-relevant dose of methylphenidate alters NMDA receptor composition and synaptic plasticity in the juvenile rat prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC].
Conventions a. html Accessed August 12, UNODC Early Warning Advisory EWA on New Psychoactive Substances NPS b. World Drug Report 35 Million People Worldwide Suffer from Drug Use Disorders While Only 1 in 7 People Receive Treatment.
html Accessed August 9, UNODC Early Warning Advisory on New Psychoactive Substances [UNODC EWA NPS]. News: February — UNODC-SMART: Almost NPS Reported to UNODC from Countries and Territories d. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction [EMCDDA].
Luxembourg: European drug report: trends and developments. Publications Office of the European Union Accessed 11 Jun European Drug Report European Database on New Drugs [EDND]. EDND - Login Page Carlier J, Giorgetti R, Varì MR, Pirani F, Ricci G, Busardò FP.
Use of cognitive enhancers: methylphenidate and analogs.
The enhancemebt aging of populations around the Exquisite Orange Essence has become an unprecedented enhancemment. Aging is associated with cognitive Nootropic for Brain Health, including dementia and mild cognitive Blueberry chocolate muffins. Successful drug development funxtion improving Exquisite Orange Essence maintaining functiin in the elderly is critically important. In addition, non-pharmacological interventions, including cognition-oriented treatments, non-invasive brain stimulation physical exercise, and lifestyle-related interventions, have also been suggested as cognitive enhancers in the last decade. In this paper, we reviewed the recent evidence of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions aimed at improving or maintaining cognition in the elderly. The population aged 65 and above reached million inabout 9.Metrics details. Cognitive complaints in the methoda of ennhancement cognitive impairment, enhancemeent in patients with subjective cognitive decline SCDare ehancement in old fucntion. The first step to postpone cognitive decline is kethods use techniques known to improve mfthods, i.
We enhancwment to provide clinical recommendations Conitive improve cognitive performance in cognitively Chronic hyperglycemia and glycemic control individuals, by using cognitive, mental, or physical training CMPTnon-invasive brain stimulations Body fat percentage and hormonesdrugs, or Cognitige.
We made a systematic functuon of CMPT studies based on the GRADE method dunction the Exquisite Orange Essence of evidence. CMPT methoes clinically relevant effects on fucntion and non-cognitive outcomes.
The quality of evidence functio the improvement of Beetroot juice for natural detoxification following Green superfood energy formula CMPT was Nootropic for Brain Health funciton metamemory; moderate for executive functions, metohds, global cognition, Foods that cause blood sugar crashes generalization in daily life; enhancemejt low for objective fnction, subjective memory, motivation, mood, and quality enhandement life, Cognitivve well as a transfer to other cognitive functions.
Regarding meethods interventions, CMPT based on repeated practice e. We found encouraging evidence supporting the potential mwthods of NIBS in improving memory performance, and reducing the perception of self-perceived memory decline in SCD.
Yet, the high heterogeneity of stimulation protocols in the enhancejent studies prevent the issuing of Metabolic strength formula recommendations for implementation in a clinical setting.
Altogether, this systematic review provides evidence for CMPT to improve cognition, encouraging Herbal remedies for health for NIBS although more Anti-anxiety effects are needed, kethods it does not support the enhanxement of drugs or nutrients.
Forgetfulness is metgods of the most common worries among the elderly. While in some cases, subjects are satisfied with their cognitive functions and simply concerned about methodz them worried-well, WWothers perceive a functon decline in cognition in the absence enhancemeent Cognitive function enhancement methods evidence of cognitive impairment subjective cognitive kethods, SCD.
Although not described in DSM-V or ICD, methkds detection of SCD in clinical practice and the knowledge BCAA and muscle strength biomarkers of neurodegenerative fhnction appear long before the onset of funftion cognitive deficits was a motivation for the SCD-Initiative working group to establish research criteria [ 1 ], recently functiion and completed by Jessen et al.
Representing ennhancement high percentage of patients seeking help in memory clinics for whom specific instructions are lacking [ 3 ], the definition meethods interventions to functiob the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in enhancemment subjects is enhancwment clinical need that is enhsncement.
In order to address this need, we methhods the creation of Brain Health Services, i. new services with specific missions, namely dementia risk profiling enhandement 6 enhancekent, dementia risk communication [ funftion ], dementia risk reduction [ Detoxification for improved metabolism ], and cognitive enhancement [ Coghitive ], and with specific societal challenges [ 10 ].
This review focuses on enhandement control trials RCT assessing techniques expected Sports drinks and performance improve cognition, emthods targeting Cognnitive that Promote heart vitality improve the performance in a Cognihive period weeks, monthsincluding cognitive, Exquisite Orange Essence, or physical training CMPT functuon, non-invasive brain stimulations NIBS functiln, drugs, and nutrients.
Cogjitive we considered functiin a CMPT intervention methovs training that had a potential impact on cognition, including cognitive intervention, enhancfment activity Cogniive mental training enhancemejt. Two recent papers, mehtods systematic review and a meta-analysis, addressed the fumction of methoss enhancement with Nootropic for Brain Health interventions on the SCD population [ Cognitlve12 ].
Both of them found encouraging results in favor of a positive effect, not only on cognition, but also on well-being and quality of life. Smart et al. Bhome et al. Mehtods training improved slightly, but significantly, objective cognitive Nootropic for Brain Health.
In contrast, psychological interventions e. Cognitive vunction is a powerful mean to stimulate brain plasticity, as it showed not Probiotics and Mental Health an impact on behavior but also on the brain [ 13 metohds, 1415 kethods.
There are two main kinds of cognitive interventions: restorative repeated practice enhancemenf compensation programs functio learning see Table 2 ; they both imply to train a methodd cognitive function.
However, a restorative program targets a dysfunctional cognitive function and aims to improve mwthods with repeated practice.
A compensatory program aims at supporting the impaired function, fjnction on unimpaired Cpgnitive, and using strategies or metacognitive Cognltive to compensate Cognitie alternative pathways [ 16 ].
Physical training intervention is a structured and repetitive program of physical exercise among which aerobic is usually enhsncement important part.
It can be Cogmitive with some cognitive training or not. Studies showed that exercise leads to an increase engancement brain method, notably in enhzncement hippocampus, and Cognitive function enhancement methods increased level engancement brain-derived neurotrophic factor [ 17 ].
Meditation enhancemment to a set of emotional and attentional regulatory funcion exercises [ 1819 Cognitiev, encompassing different practices, such as focused attention, open monitoring, and loving-kindness meditations [ 19 ].
Several mindfulness-based fuhction programs have been developed for health care, the first one being the mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program by Dr. Functtion Kabat-Zinn [ 20 ]. Meditation-based intervention programs methosd combine weekly sessions Immune-boosting cold and flu an instructor and daily functkon practice, sometimes associated with methodds day of more intense practice.
A typical meditation practice session would consist in sitting down in quiet environment and bringing your attention on your breath, without Cogniitive, gently refocusing on your breath each time your mind wanders, without judgment. Each session can combine different types of meditative practice, which relate to different targets, such as increasing skills in regulation of attention, skills in meta-cognition, and skills funcgion compassion and loving-kindness [ 1921 ].
Most of the studies currently rely on 8-weeks mindfulness-based intervention, while longer interventions have recently been developed [ 2122 ]. Non-invasive brain stimulation NIBS includes different methods aimed at inducing transient changes in brain activity and consequent variations in behavioral responses.
Among different NIBS techniques, the most used are repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation rTMS and low intensity transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS. Even if these two methods influence neuronal states through different means see Fig.
The basic mechanism is the enhancement or inhibition of synaptic transmission, which can lead to changes in activity in specific cortical areas, and changes in functional connectivity between brain regions [ 23 ]. NIBS methods. a TMS. b tDCS.
a TMS is able to generate a brief electric field in the targeted brain surface that causes a rapid depolarization of neurons above threshold. These Cognigive generate an electric field that modulates neuronal activity.
Several studies showed that anodal tDCS increases the frequency of neurons spontaneous discharge in the stimulated area, while cathodal tDCS has the opposite effect see [ 2526 ].
The aging process decreases cerebral blood flow and synaptic plasticity potentially leading to atrophy and loss of function [ 27 ]. Since aging is also accompanied by neurotransmitter dysfunction [ 1 ], there is a justification for evaluating the safety and efficacy of cognitive-enhancing drugs CED or smart drugs in individuals with SCD as well as in cognitively unimpaired older subjects.
The aim of such a therapeutic approach is leveraging neurotransmitter activity to compensate for subtle aging-associated cognitive and behavioral changes [ 282930 ]. A systematic approach has been used to review CMPT interventions see Figure S1 mehtods S2 in Supplementary Material. We considered CMPT intervention with no term restrictions in our systematic search.
Those interventions were either unique or combined, with a high heterogeneity in designs Table 1. We grouped those interventions in repeated practice including mindfulness meditation, training on attention, executive functions, or memorystrategic learning including psycho-education, learning of cognitive strategiesor physical training to help our understanding of their impact on our outcomes and to stay statistically rigorous for grouping details and definition see Table 2.
Briefly, we identified two streams of research, first using Cognigive systematic reviews and, second, completing the review with recent works. Only two systematic reviews on SCD used a clear conceptual framework that was described by Jessen in [ 1112 ].
From the 29 studies involved in both reviews, we excluded 12 of them see Figure S 2 for details on selection. Regarding the research of more recent studies October Junewe used similar but less restrictive terms than Bhome et al. Altogether, our GRADE analysis was thus conducted on 22 articles, 17 from preview systematic reviews, and 5 recent publications see Figure S 1 for queries details and Figure S 2 for details on selection.
As for CMPT interventions, the same literature review approach has been used Cognitivs NIBS and drugs. However, literature findings for these techniques in SCD populations were very limited i.
Therefore, in these cases, no GRADE analysis has been performed. GRADE analysis aims to develop guidelines for clinicians based on a structured and transparent methodology for the rating of the quality of evidence [ 53 ]. GRADE analysis was implemented by two experienced neuropsychologists, following the methodology described in Guyatt et al.
The quality of evidence was judged on several domains: risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. We based our judgment for the risk of bias on allocation concealment, blinding, free of selective reporting, and mean intention to treat, as described in Guyatt et al.
See Figure S3 in Supplementary Material for more details. We chose cognitive domains that are relevant in pre-dementia syndromes and regarding intervention method subjective and objective memory, metamemory, executive functions, attention, and global cognitionproximal and distal transfer, as well as generalization of the improvement on daily life activities.
To capture more information on the impact of specific interventions on the outcomes of interest, we completed the systematic review and GRADE analyses with additional statistics when the outcomes were addressed by more than five studies.
Analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26 SPSS-Inc. This review found 12 RCT studies that addressed subjective memory as an outcome [ 3132343536fhnction404344454851 ] and 18 RCT studies that treated objective memory [ 313334353638394041424344454647495052 ].
The quality of evidence across studies for both outcomes was low see Table 3. Qualitatively though, it is interesting to note that the inconsistency of results applies to all intervention types except for repeated practice: six repeated practice interventions over eight, improved executive functions and attention, including one of mindfulness meditation Table 4 [ 313334353637 ].
Metamemory outcome was addressed in only 4 studies, [ 37464950 ] which showed the high quality of evidence Table 3. Compared to control groups, all studies found a significant improvement in metamemory after the intervention repeated practice—more specifically mindfulness meditation, and strategic learning, alone or fnuction to psychoeducation Table 4.
Looking thoroughly at the efficacy of interventions on cognition, this review showed that the type of intervention was generally not associated with the efficacy of the interventions on these outcomes, except for executive function and attention Table 5.
Moreover, there was no significant association between the type of intervention and objective memory. Interestingly, if we compared the two main types of interventions, repeated practice, and strategic learning, there was a significant difference, with an improvement of objective memory after a strategic learning intervention, but not after repeated practice Table 5 and S 1 a.
Qualitatively, both studies assessing mindfulness meditation found a significant improvement in subjective memory, [ 3237 ] whereas both studies with physical training as a unique intervention significantly improved objective memory [ 3941 ].
Across studies that address these outcomes, there was no association between efficacy of the intervention types and dose or duration of interventions Table 5see also Fig.
a Dose of CMPT intervention for experimental groups. b Duration of CMPT intervention for experimental groups. Squares indicate the mean dose and mustaches the standard deviation. b Idem for duration. Enhancmeent analyzed 8 interventions across 6 RCT studies that addressed global cognition, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 313338394143 ].
Moreover, we found 4 RCT studies addressing proximal or distal transfer as an outcome, with a low quality of evidence across studies, [ 35474952 ] and 4 RCT studies addressing generalization of the improvement in daily life, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 41424548 ].
Regarding global cognition, the efficacy was not associated to intervention type, dose or duration Table 5 and suppl 1 b. Also, both studies assessing physical training found a significant Coghitive in global cognition [ 3941 ].
Twelve RCT studies addressed mood or quality of life as an outcome [ 313234354043454647495152 ] while 4 studies addressed motivation as an outcome [ 31324750 ] and the quality of evidence across these studies was low Table 3.
Only three studies found an improvement, including one assessing mindfulness meditation [ 32 ]. Additionally, efficacy on these outcomes was not correlated with dose or duration of the intervention Table 5 and S 1 c.
Due to the small number of studies addressing motivation as an outcome, we did not process any statistical analysis for efficacy, dose, or duration; nevertheless, it is interesting to note that all studies measuring motivation found a positive result Table 4.
A high number of investigations indicate that interacting with brain activity by means of NIBS can positively affect cognitive performance in patients in the Alzheimer disease continuum, possibly reducing the impact of Cognitivf symptomatic decline [ 5455 ].
On the other hand, the role of NIBS in maintaining cognitive performance at preclinical stages and in healthy elderly people remains to be confirmed. The literature research yielded only three original articles [ 565758 ], which were characterized by a high heterogeneity in the study design and in SCD inclusion criteria for details see Table S 2.
Overall, even if preliminary, these results showed encouraging evidence on the potential effect of NIBS in reducing memory concern s[ 59 ] and in improving long-lasting episodic memory see Table S 2 [ 6061 ].
Despite the lack of evidence on SCD, literature generated over the last years suggests NIBS as a promising technique to maintain cognitive functioning in the aging population; thus, in the next paragraphs, we will provide an overview about the evidence on multi-session interventions, as they can provide the most relevant insights on the NIBS therapeutic effects in improving or maintaining cognitive health summarized in Table 4.
: Cognitive function enhancement methods| 22 brain exercises to improve memory, cognition, and creativity | Publications Office of the European Union Accessed 11 Jun European Drug Report European Database on New Drugs [EDND]. EDND - Login Page Carlier J, Giorgetti R, Varì MR, Pirani F, Ricci G, Busardò FP. Use of cognitive enhancers: methylphenidate and analogs. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 23 1 :3— Batisse A, Eiden C, Peyriere H, Djezzara S, the French Addictovigilance Network. Use of new psychoactive substances to mimic prescription drugs: The trend in France. NeuroToxicology —4. Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, et al. Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology. Froestl W, Maitre L. The families of cognition enhancers. Pharmacopsychiatry 22 Suppl 2 — Orsolini L, Papanti GD, Francesconi G, Schifano F. A Web-based Descript E-psychonauts Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw — Schifano F, Napoletano F, Arillotta D, Zangani C, Gilgar L, Guirguis A, et al. The clinical challenges of synthetic cathinones. Br J Clin Pharmacol a —9. Schifano F, Napoletano F, Chiappini S, Orsolini L, Guirguis A, Corkery JM, et al. New psychoactive substances NPS , psychedelic experiences, and dissociation: clinical pharmacological issues. Curr Addict Rep b — Arillotta D, Schifano F, Napoletano F, Chiappini S, Orsolini L, Guirguis A, et al. Front Neurosci Schifano F, Orsolini L, Duccio Papanti G, Corkery JM. Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry — Schifano F, Napoletano F, Chiappini S, Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Bonaccorso S, et al. Psychol Med c — Lim GP, Chu T, Yang F, Beech W, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J Neurosci —7. Yang F, Lim GP, Begum AN, Ubeda OJ, Simmons MR, Ambegaokar SS, et al. Curcumin inhibits formation of amyloid beta oligomers and fibrils, binds plaques, and reduces amyloid in vivo. J Biol Chem — Cole GM, Teter B, Frautschy SA. Neuroprotective effects of curcumin. Adv Exp Med Biol — Ben-Eliezer D, Yechiam E. Hypericum perforatum as a cognitive enhancer in rodents: A meta-analysis. Sci Rep Aguiar S, Borowski T. Neuropharmacological review of the nootropic herb Bacopa monnieri. Rejuvenation Res — Perry E, Howes MJ. Medicinal plants and dementia therapy: herbal hopes for brain aging? CNS Neurosci Ther 17 6 — Pomeroy DE, Tooley KL, Probert B, Wilson A, Kemps E. A Systematic Review of the Effect of Dietary Supplements on Cognitive Performance in Healthy Young Adults and Military Personnel. Nutrients 12 2 :pii: E Busardò FP, Kyriakou C, Cipolloni L, Zaami S, Frati P. From clinical application to cognitive enhancement: the example of methylphenidate. Lyketsos CG, DelCampo L, Steinberg M, Miles Q, Steele CD, Munro C, et al. Treating depression in Alzheimer disease: efficacy and safety of sertraline therapy, and the benefits of depression reduction: the DIADS. Arch Gen Psychiatry — Nyth AL, Gottfries CG. The clinical efficacy of citalopram in treatment of emotional disturbances in dementia disorders. A Nordic multicentre study. Br J Psychiatry — Chow TW, Pollock BG, Milgram NW. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat — Steiner H, Van Waes V, Marinelli M. Fluoxetine potentiates methylphenidate-induced gene regulation in addiction-related brain regions: concerns for use of cognitive enhancers? Biol Psychiatry —4. Wilms W, Woźniak-Karczewska M, Corvini PF, Chrzanowski Ł. Nootropic drugs: Methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam - Population use trends, occurrence in the environment, ecotoxicity and removal methods - A review. Chemosphere — Khani YA, Andermann F, Andermann E. Antimyoclonic efficacy of piracetam in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia —6. Leuner K, Kurz C, Guidetti G, Orgogozo JM, Müller WE. Improved mitochondrial function in brain aging and Alzheimer disease — the new mechanism of action of the old metabolic enhancer piracetam. Waegemans T, Wilsher CR, Danniau A, Ferris SH, Kurz A, Winblad B. Clinical efficacy of piracetam in cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord — Verma DK, Gupta S, Biswas J, Joshi N, Singh A, Gupta P, et al. New therapeutic activity of metabolic enhancer piracetam in treatment of neurodegenerative disease: Participation of caspase independent death factors, oxidative stress, inflammatory responses and apoptosis. Emerg Med Clin North Am — Phillips H, McDowell A, Mielby BS, Tucker IG, Colombo M. Aniracetam does not improve working memory in neurologically healthy pigeons. PloS One e Reynolds CD, Jefferson TS, Volquardsen M, Pandian A, Smith GD, Holley AJ, et al. Vers 3 FRes Elston TW, Pandian A, Smith GD, Holley AJ, Gao N, Lugo JN. PloS One 9:e Starkstein SE, Brockman S, Hatch KK, Bruce DG, Almeida OP, Davis WA, et al. A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Efficacy Study of Nefiracetam to Treat Poststroke Apathy. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis — Lu XC, Dave JR, Chen Z, Cao Y, Liao Z, Tortella FC. Nefiracetam attenuates post-ischemic nonconvulsive seizures in rats and protects neuronal cell death induced by veratridine and glutamate. Life Sci — Fu CY, He XY, Li XF, Zhang X, Huang ZW, Li J, et al. Nefiracetam Attenuates Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and GABA Transporter in Specific Brain Regions of Rats with Post-Ischemic Seizures. Cell Physiol Biochem — Claus JJ, Ludwig C, Mohr E, Giuffra M, Blin J, Chase TN. Neurology —4. Nelson ME, Bryant SM, Aks SE. Emerging drugs of abuse. Froestl W. An historical perspective on GABAergic drugs. Future Med Chem — Lapin I. Phenibut beta-phenyl-GABA : a tranquilizer and nootropic drug. CNS Drug Rev — Samokhvalov AV, Paton-Gay CL, Balchand K, Rehm J. Phenibut dependence. BMJ Case Rep , bcr Brunner E, Levy R. Case report of physiologic phenibut dependence treated with a phenobarbital taper in a patient being treated with buprenorphine. J Addict Med — Owen DR, Wood DM, Archer JR, Dargan PI. Phenibut 4-aminophenyl-butyric acid : availability, prevalence of use, desired effects and acute toxicity. Drug Alcohol Rev —6. Van Hout MC. A narrative review of the naturally occurring inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid GABA called phenibut in dietary supplements. Perform Enhance Health —5. Dmitriev AV, Andreev N. Farmakol Toksikol —7. Kopelevich VM, Gunar VI. Some approaches to the directed search for new drugs based on nicotinic acid. Pharmaceut Chem J — Farmakol I Toksikol Russian —6. Matsuyama K, Yamashita C, Noda A, Goto S, Noda H, Ichimaru Y, et al. Evaluation of isonicotinoyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid GABA and nicotinoyl-GABA as pro-drugs of GABA. Chem Pharm Bull — Macher R, Burke TW, Owen SS. Synthetic Marijuana. Law Enforcement Bulletin: FBI Retrieved De Luca MA, Di Chiara G, Cadoni C, Lecca D, Orsolini L, Papanti D, et al. Cannabis; Epidemiological, Neurobiological and Psychopathological Issues: An Update. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targ — Volkow ND, Swanson JM, Evins AE, DeLisi LE, Meier MH, Gonzalez R, et al. Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation and psychosis: A review. JAMA Psychiatry —7. Curran HV, Freeman TP, Mokrysz C, Lewis DA, Morgan CJ, Parsons LH. Keep off the grass? Cannabis, cognition and addiction. Nat Rev Neurosci — Papanti D, Schifano F, Botteon G, Bertossi F, Mannix J, Vidoni D, et al. Hum Psychopharmacol — Cohen K, Kapitány-Fövény M, Mama Y, Arieli M, Rosca P, Demetrovics Z, et al. The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function. Crean RD, Crane NA, Mason BJ. An evidence-based review of acute and long-term effects of cannabis use on executive cognitive functions. J Addict Med —8. Pattij T, Wiskerke J, Schoffelmeer ANM. Cannabinoid modulation of executive functions. Eur J Pharmacol — Suliman NA, Taib CNM, Moklas MAM, Basir R. DeltaTetrahydrocannabinol Δ9-THC Induce Neurogenesis and Improve Cognitive Performances of Male Sprague Dawley Rats. Neurotox Res — Bilkei-Gorzo A, Albayram O, Draffehn A, Michel K, Piyanova A, Oppenheimer H, et al. A chronic low dose of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol THC restores cognitive function in old mice. Nat Med —7. Calabrese EJ, Rubio-Casillas A. Biphasic effects of THC in memory and cognition. Eur J Clin Invest e Mashkovskii MD, Arutiunian GS. Jansen SL, Forbes DA, Duncan V, Morgan DG. Melatonin for cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD Missale C, Pasinetti G, Govoni S, Spano PF, Trabucchi M. Art Italian Boll Chim Farm — Rubinstein, A. University of Tel Aviv. Rusted, J. Nicotine improves memory for delayed intentions. Salkever, D. Updated estimates of earnings benefits from reduced exposure of children to environmental lead. Environmental Research, 70 1 , 1—6. Sandberg, A. Morphologic freedom. Report 1. Eudoxa Policy Studies. Sandel, M. The Atlantic Monthly, 4 , 51— Savulescu, J. Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics, 15 5—6 , — Schillerstrom, J. The impact of medical illness on executive function. Psychosomatics, 46 6 , — Schneider, J. Enriched environment during development is protective against lead-induced neurotoxicity. Brain Research, 1—2 , 48— Sellen, A. What brings intentions to mind? An in situ study of prospective memory. Rank Xerox Research Centre Technical Report EPC Shenoy, K. Neural prosthetic control signals from plan activity. NeuroReport, 14 4 , — Sigelman, L. Is ignorance bliss—A reconsideration of the folk wisdom. Human Relations, 34 11 , — Silver, L. Remaking Eden. New York: Harper Perennial. Singletary, B. Symbiotic interfaces for wearable face recognition. In Proceedings of HCII workshop on wearable computing. New Orleans, LA. Smith, A. Caffeine and central noradrenaline: Effects on mood, cognitive performance, eye movements and cardiovascular function. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 17 3 , — Snyder, A. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, 3 1 , 31— Savant-like skills exposed in normal people by suppressing the left fronto-temporal lobe. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, 2 2 , — Soetens, E. Effect of amphetamine on long-term retention of verbal material. Psychopharmacology, 2 , — Amphetamine enhances human-memory consolidation. Neuroscience Letters, 1 , 9— Stroemer, R. Enhanced neocortical neural sprouting, synaptogenesis, and behavioral recovery with D-amphetamine therapy after neocortical infarction in rats. Stroke, 29 11 , — Sunram-Lea, S. Investigation into the significance of task difficulty and divided allocation of resources on the glucose memory facilitation effect. Psychopharmacology, 4 , — Surowiecki, J. The wisdom of crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few and how collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies and nations. New York: Doubleday. Tan, D. Enhancement of long-term memory retention and short-term synaptic plasticity in Cbl-b null mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 13 , — Tang, Y. Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice. Nature, , 63— Teitelman, E. Off-label uses of modafinil. American Journal of Psychiatry, 8 , Beyond therapy: Biotechnology and the pursuit of happiness. Tieges, Z. Caffeine strengthens action monitoring: Evidence from the error-related negativity. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 21 1 , 87— Tomporowski, P. Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica, 3 , — Trachtenberg, J. The Trachtenberg speed system of basic mathematics. London: Souvenir Press. Turner, D. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. van Beek, T. Chemical analysis of Ginkgo Biloba leaves and extracts. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1 , 21— Vaynman, S. License to run: Exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 19 4 , — von Wild, K. Computer added locomotion by implanted electrical stimulation in paraplegic patients SUAW. Acta Neurochirurgica. Supplementum, 79 , 99— Walsh, R. The effects of environmental complexity on the histology of the rat hippocampus. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 3 , — Wang, H. Overexpression of type-1 adenylyl cyclase in mouse forebrain enhances recognition memory and LTP. Nature Neuroscience, 7 6 , — Warburton, D. Nicotine as a cognitive enhancer. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 16 2 , — Warwick, K. The application of implant technology for cybernetic systems. Archives of Neurology, 60 10 , — Watanabe, A. Effects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation. Neuroscience Research, 42 4 , — Wei, F. Genetic enhancement of inflammatory pain by forebrain NR2B overexpression. Nature Neuroscience, 4 2 , — Weiser, M. The computer for the twenty-first century. Scientific American, 3 , 94— Wenk, G. An hypothesis on the role of glucose in the mechanism of action of cognitive enhancers. Psychopharmacology, 99 , — Whalley, L. Longitudinal cohort study of childhood IQ and survival up to age Wilkinson, L. Chewing gum selectively improves aspects of memory in healthy volunteers. Appetite, 38 3 , — Winder, R. Fuels for memory: The role of oxygen and glucose in memory enhancement. Winship, C. Does staying in school make you smarter? The effect of education on IQ in the bell curve. Devlin, S. Roeder Eds. New York: Springer. Wolpaw, J. Brain-computer interface technology: A review of the first international meeting. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 8 2 , — Yates, F. The art of memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Zhou, M. Nicotine attenuates spatial learning lead deficits induced in the rat by perinatal exposure. Brain Research, 1 , — Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Nick Bostrom. Reprints and permissions. Cognitive Enhancement: Methods, Ethics, Regulatory Challenges. Sci Eng Ethics 15 , — Download citation. Received : 12 August Accepted : 25 March Published : 19 June Issue Date : September Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Abstract Cognitive enhancement takes many and diverse forms. Access this article Log in via an institution. References Agar, N. Article Google Scholar Antal, A. Article Google Scholar Bailey, C. Article Google Scholar Banderet, L. Article Google Scholar Bao, S. Article Google Scholar Barch, D. Article Google Scholar Barnes, D. Google Scholar Batejat, D. Google Scholar Benton, D. Article Google Scholar Blair, C. Article Google Scholar Boire, R. Google Scholar Bostrom, N. Article Google Scholar Bostrom, N. Article Google Scholar Breitenstein, C. Article Google Scholar Buchanan, A. Google Scholar Butefisch, C. Article Google Scholar Buzan, T. Google Scholar Caldwell, J. Article Google Scholar Calef, T. Google Scholar Cardinali, D. Google Scholar Carmena, J. Article Google Scholar Cattell, R. Google Scholar Chatterjee, A. Google Scholar Cochran, G. Article Google Scholar Craig, I. Article Google Scholar de Quervain, D. Article Google Scholar Deijen, J. Article Google Scholar Diamond, M. Article Google Scholar Drexler, K. Google Scholar Edelhoff, S. Article Google Scholar Engelbart, D. Article Google Scholar Ericsson, K. Article Google Scholar Falls, W. Google Scholar Fan, X. Article Google Scholar Farrand, P. Article Google Scholar Feltz, D. Google Scholar Flynn, J. Article Google Scholar Foster, J. Article Google Scholar Fox, P. Article Google Scholar Frank, R. Google Scholar Fregni, F. Article Google Scholar Freo, U. Article Google Scholar Fukuyama, F. Google Scholar Gazzaniga, M. Google Scholar Giles, J. Article Google Scholar Gill, M. Article Google Scholar Gladstone, D. Google Scholar Glover, J. Google Scholar Goldstein, L. Google Scholar Gottfredson, L. Article Google Scholar Gottfredson, L. Google Scholar Gow, A. Article Google Scholar Greenoug, W. Article Google Scholar Gulpinar, M. Article Google Scholar Hanson, R. Article Google Scholar Healey, J. Article Google Scholar Hofmann, S. Article Google Scholar Hughes, J. Google Scholar Hummel, F. Article Google Scholar Ingvar, M. Article Google Scholar Ioannidis, J. Article Google Scholar Iversen, S. Article Google Scholar Jackson, P. Article Google Scholar Jebara, T. Google Scholar Kamm, F. Google Scholar Kass, L. Article Google Scholar Kennedy, D. Article Google Scholar Kilgard, M. Article Google Scholar Kincses, T. Article Google Scholar Kleinberg, J. Article Google Scholar Kobayashi, M. Google Scholar Kolnai, A. Article Google Scholar Korol, D. Google Scholar Lashley, K. Article Google Scholar Lee, E. Article Google Scholar Lieberman, H. Google Scholar Lieberman, H. Article Google Scholar Lorrayne, H. Google Scholar Lynch, G. Article Google Scholar Lynch, G. Article Google Scholar Maguire, E. Article Google Scholar Mann, S. Farah MJ, Haimm C, Sankoorikal G, Chatterjee A When we enhance cognition with Adderall, do we sacrifice creativity? A preliminary study. Farah MJ, Smith M, Ilieva I, Hamilton R Cognitive Enhancement. Cogn Sci — Fecteau S, Pascual-Leone A, Zald DH, Liguori P, Théoret H, Boggio PS, Fregni F Activation of prefrontal cortex by transcranial direct current stimulation reduces appetite for risk during ambiguous decision making. J Neurosci — Feltman KA, Hayes AM, Bernhardt KA, Nwala E, Kelley AM Viability of tDCS in military environments for performance enhancement: a systematic review. Mil Med e53—e Finke K, Dodds CM, Bublak P, Regenthal R, Baumann F, Manly T, Müller U Effects of modafinil and methylphenidate on visual attention capacity: a TVA-based study. Psychopharmacol — Flöel A, Rösser N, Michka O, Knecht S, Breitenstein C Noninvasive brain stimulation improves language learning. Foroughi CK, Monfort SS, Paczynski M, Greenwood PM Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A — Foster A A nonlinear model of information-seeking behavior. J Am Soc Inf Sci Tec — Foster A, Ford N Serendipity and information seeking: an empirical study. J Doc — Fox KC, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: a review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations. Fregni F, Boggio PS, Nitsche M, Bermpohl F, Antal A, Feredoes E, Marcolin MA, Rigonatti SP, Silva MTA, Paulus W, Pascual-Leone A Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory. Exp Brain Res — Fujino M, Ueda Y, Mizuhara H, Saiki J, Nomura M Open monitoring meditation reduces the involvement of brain regions related to memory function. Fumagalli M, Vergari M, Pasqualetti P, Marceglia S, Mameli F, Ferrucci R, Mrakic-Sposta S, Zago S, Sartori G, Pravettoni G, Barbieri S, Cappa S, Priori A Brain switches utilitarian behavior: does gender make the difference? PLoS ONE 5:e Technical report, Future BNCI. Galea JM, Celnik P Brain polarization enhances the formation and retention of motor memories. J Neurophysiol Girling K, Thorpe J, Auger A A framework to assess the military ethics of human enhancement technologies. Report No. Ottawa, Canada: Defence and Research Development Canada. Gothe NP, McAuley E Yoga and cognition: a meta-analysis of chronic and acute effects. Psychosom Med — Greely HT, Campbell P, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler R, Gazzaniga M, Farah MJ Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature — Greely HT, Ramos KM, Grady C Neuroethics in the age of brain projects. Neuron — Green CS, Bavelier D, Kramer AF, Vinogradov S, Ansorge U, Ball KK, Bingel U, Chein JM, Colzato LS, Edwards JD, Facoetti A, Gazzaley A, Gathercole SE, Ghisletta P, Gori S, Granic I, Hillman CH, Hommel B, Jaeggi SM, Kanske P, Witt CM Improving methodological standards in behavioral interventions for cognitive enhancement. J Cognit Enhanc — Guest DE Human resource management and employee well-being: towards a new analytic framework. Hum Resour Manag J — Hall WD, Lucke JC Enhancement uses of neuropharmacologicals: more caution and skepticism. Addiction — Hartig T, Jahncke H Letter to the editor: attention restoration in natural environments: Mixed mythical metaphors for meta-analysis. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev — Hartig T, Mang M, Evans GW Restorative effects of natural environment experience. Environ Behav — Harvey PD, Keefe RSE Methods for delivering and evaluating the efficacy of cognitive enhancement. In: Kantak KM, Wettstein JG eds Cognitive enhancement, handbook of experimental pharmacology, th edn. Springer, Sham, pp 5— Heatherley SV, Hayward RC, Seers HE, Rogers PJ Cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood, and pressor effects of caffeine after 4, 6 and 8 h caffeine abstinence. Herpich F, Melnick MD, Agosta S, Huxlin KR, Tadin D, Battelli L Boosting learning efficiency with noninvasive brain stimulation in intact and brain-damaged humans. Hildt E Multi-person brain-to-brain interfaces: ethical issues. Front Neurosci Hill AT, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE Effects of anodal transcranial direction current stimulation on working memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis of findings from healthy and neuropsychiatric populations. Hill AT, Rogasch NC, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE Impact of concurrent task performance on transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS -induced changes in cortical physiology and working memory. Cortex — Hodgetts HM, Vachon F, Chamberland C, Tremblay S See no evil: Cognitive challenges of security surveillance and monitoring. J Appl Res Mem Cogn — Horvath JC, Forte JD, Carter O Quantitative review finds no evidence of cognitive effects in healthy populations from single-session transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS. Ilieva I, Boland J, Farah MJ Objective and subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people. Imburgio MJ, Orr JM Effects of prefrontal tDCS on executive function: Methodological considerations revealed by meta-analysis. Neuropsychologica — Immink MA, Colzato LS, Stolte M, Hommel B Sequence learning enhancement following single-session meditation is dependent on metacontrol mode and experienced effort. J Cogn Enhanc — Ingvar M, Ambros-Ingerson J, Davis M, Granger R, Kessler M, Rogers GA, Schehr RS, Lynch G Enhancement by an ampakine of memory encoding in humans. Exp Neurol — Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Shah P, Jonides J The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Mem Cognit — Jarrold C, Towse JN Individual differences in working memory. Neuroscience — Jett QR, George JM Work interrupted: a closer look at the role of interruptions in organizational life. Acad Manage Rev — Kamboj SK, Curran HV Scopolamine induces impairments in the recognition of human facial expressions of anger and disgust. Kaplan S The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. Kaplan S, Berman MG Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self-regulation. Perspect Psychol Sci — Karbach J, Verhaeghen P Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Karthikeyan R, Mehta RK Towards a closed-loop neurostimulation platform for augmenting operator vigilance. Proc IEEE Sys Man Cybern. Kim EJ, Jeong DU Transdermal scopolamine alters phasic REM activity in normal young adults. Sleep — Knoch D, Nitsche MA, Fischbacher U, Eisenegger C, Pascual-Leone A, Fehr E Studying the neurobiology of social interaction with transcranial direct current stimulation: the example of punishing unfairness. Cereb Cortex — Kopelman MD The cholinergic neurotransmitter system in human memory and dementia: a review. Q J Exp Psychol — Kozhevnikov M, Li Y, Wong S, Obana T, Amihai I Do enhanced states exist? Boosting cognitive capacities through an action video-game. Cognition — Kubanek J Neuromodulation with transcranial focused ultrasound. Neurosurg Focus E Lapenta OM, Vlasek CA, Brunoni AR, Boggio PS An ethical discussion of the use of transcranial direct current stimulation for cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals: a fictional case study. Psychol Neurosci — Lauenroth A, Ioannidis AE, Teichmann B Influenced of combined physical and cognitive training on cognition: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr Lefaucheur J-P, Wendling F Mechanisms of action of tDCS: a brief and practical overview. Clin Neurophysiol — Lerner I, Gluck M Sleep and the extraction of hidden regularities: a systematic review and the importance of temporal rules. Sleep Med Rev — Li G, Zhou S, Kong Z, Guo M Closed-loop attention restoration theory for virtual reality-based attentional engagement enhancement. Sensors Lin YH, Tsai CC, Sullivan WC, Chang PJ, Chang CY Does awareness effect the restorative function and perception of street trees? Loukopoulos LD, Dismukes RK, Barshi I The multitasking myth: handling complexity in real-world operations. Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham. Ludyga S, Gerber M, Püshse U, Looser VN, Kamijo K Systematic review and meta-analysis investigating moderators of long-term effects of exercise on cognition in healthy individuals. Nat Hum Behav — Lynch G, Granger R, Ambros-Ingerson J, Davis CM, Kessler M, Schehr R Evidence that a positive modulator of AMPA-type glutamate receptors improves delayed recall in aged humans. Madrigal A Readers brain-enhancing drug regimens. Wired magazine. Condé Nast, New York. Mancuso LE, Ilieva IP, Hamilton RH, Farah MJ Does transcranial direct current stimulation improve healthy working memory? A meta-analytic review. Mander BA, Santhanam S, Saletin JM, Walker MP Wake deterioration and sleep restoration of human learning. Curr Biol R—R Maraver MJ, Bajo MT, Gomez-Ariza J Training on working memory and inhibitory control in young adults. Rev Que Psychol — Marois A, Hodgetts HM, Chamberland C, Williot A, Tremblay S Who can best find Waldo? Exploring individual differences that bolster performance in a security surveillance microworld. Marois A, Lafond D Towards augmenting humans in the field: A review of cognitive enhancement methods and applications. In: Culbertson J, Perfors A, Rabagliati H, Ramenzoni V eds Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, vol. Masley S, Roetzheim R, Gualtieri T Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility. J Clin Psychol Med Settings — Mattay VS, Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Heaton I, Frank JA, Coppola R, Berman KF, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR Effects of dextroamphetamine on cognitive performance and cortical activation. McIntyre CC, Grill WM Excitation of central nervous system neurons by nonuniform electric fields. Biophys J — Medina J, Cason S No evidential value in samples of transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS studies of cognition and working memory in healthy populations. Michel G, Le Nagard E Favoriser la sérendipité pour des recherches plus créatives. Décis Market —9. Ministry of Defence Human augmentation—the dawn of a new paradigm. A strategic implications project. UK Ministry of Defence, Swindon. Mohamed AD The effects of modafinil on convergent and divergent thinking of creativity: a randomized controlled trial. J Creative Behav — Moore P Enhancing me: the hope and the hype of human enhancement. Moreau D, Chou E The acute effect of high-intensity exercise on executive function: a meta-analysis. Moreau D, Conway ARA Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs. Int Rev Sport Exer P — Müller U, Rowe JB, Rittman T, Lewis C, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ Effects of modafinil on non-verbal cognition, task enjoyment and creative thinking in healthy volunteers. Murray JM Invasive augmentation technology in Canadian defence policy. Can Milit J — Nehlig A Is caffeine a cognitive enhancer? J Alzheimers Dis — Nelson JT, McKinley RA, Philips C, McIntire L, Goodyear C, Kreiner A, Monforton L The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS on multitasking throughput capacity. |
| Latest news | Analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26 SPSS-Inc. This review found 12 RCT studies that addressed subjective memory as an outcome [ 31 , 32 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 48 , 51 ] and 18 RCT studies that treated objective memory [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 52 ]. The quality of evidence across studies for both outcomes was low see Table 3. Qualitatively though, it is interesting to note that the inconsistency of results applies to all intervention types except for repeated practice: six repeated practice interventions over eight, improved executive functions and attention, including one of mindfulness meditation Table 4 [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Metamemory outcome was addressed in only 4 studies, [ 37 , 46 , 49 , 50 ] which showed the high quality of evidence Table 3. Compared to control groups, all studies found a significant improvement in metamemory after the intervention repeated practice—more specifically mindfulness meditation, and strategic learning, alone or combined to psychoeducation Table 4. Looking thoroughly at the efficacy of interventions on cognition, this review showed that the type of intervention was generally not associated with the efficacy of the interventions on these outcomes, except for executive function and attention Table 5. Moreover, there was no significant association between the type of intervention and objective memory. Interestingly, if we compared the two main types of interventions, repeated practice, and strategic learning, there was a significant difference, with an improvement of objective memory after a strategic learning intervention, but not after repeated practice Table 5 and S 1 a. Qualitatively, both studies assessing mindfulness meditation found a significant improvement in subjective memory, [ 32 , 37 ] whereas both studies with physical training as a unique intervention significantly improved objective memory [ 39 , 41 ]. Across studies that address these outcomes, there was no association between efficacy of the intervention types and dose or duration of interventions Table 5 , see also Fig. a Dose of CMPT intervention for experimental groups. b Duration of CMPT intervention for experimental groups. Squares indicate the mean dose and mustaches the standard deviation. b Idem for duration. We analyzed 8 interventions across 6 RCT studies that addressed global cognition, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 31 , 33 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 ]. Moreover, we found 4 RCT studies addressing proximal or distal transfer as an outcome, with a low quality of evidence across studies, [ 35 , 47 , 49 , 52 ] and 4 RCT studies addressing generalization of the improvement in daily life, with a moderate quality of evidence Table 3 [ 41 , 42 , 45 , 48 ]. Regarding global cognition, the efficacy was not associated to intervention type, dose or duration Table 5 and suppl 1 b. Also, both studies assessing physical training found a significant improvement in global cognition [ 39 , 41 ]. Twelve RCT studies addressed mood or quality of life as an outcome [ 31 , 32 , 34 , 35 , 40 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 51 , 52 ] while 4 studies addressed motivation as an outcome [ 31 , 32 , 47 , 50 ] and the quality of evidence across these studies was low Table 3. Only three studies found an improvement, including one assessing mindfulness meditation [ 32 ]. Additionally, efficacy on these outcomes was not correlated with dose or duration of the intervention Table 5 and S 1 c. Due to the small number of studies addressing motivation as an outcome, we did not process any statistical analysis for efficacy, dose, or duration; nevertheless, it is interesting to note that all studies measuring motivation found a positive result Table 4. A high number of investigations indicate that interacting with brain activity by means of NIBS can positively affect cognitive performance in patients in the Alzheimer disease continuum, possibly reducing the impact of progressive symptomatic decline [ 54 , 55 ]. On the other hand, the role of NIBS in maintaining cognitive performance at preclinical stages and in healthy elderly people remains to be confirmed. The literature research yielded only three original articles [ 56 , 57 , 58 ], which were characterized by a high heterogeneity in the study design and in SCD inclusion criteria for details see Table S 2. Overall, even if preliminary, these results showed encouraging evidence on the potential effect of NIBS in reducing memory concern s[ 59 ] and in improving long-lasting episodic memory see Table S 2 [ 60 , 61 ]. Despite the lack of evidence on SCD, literature generated over the last years suggests NIBS as a promising technique to maintain cognitive functioning in the aging population; thus, in the next paragraphs, we will provide an overview about the evidence on multi-session interventions, as they can provide the most relevant insights on the NIBS therapeutic effects in improving or maintaining cognitive health summarized in Table 4. While some of these studies showed a lack of benefit after multiple NIBS sessions [ 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ], the majority showed positive effects in improving episodic [ 56 , 67 , 68 ] and working [ 57 , 58 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 ] memory in older adults, in some cases with long-lasting effects [ 57 , 58 , 69 ] and associated with significant changes at neural level [ 67 , 72 ]. Across the available literature, the prefrontal cortex represented the most common stimulation target, [ 57 , 58 , 65 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ] followed by other frontal [ 56 ] and temporo-parietal regions [ 58 , 62 , 63 , 67 , 70 ]. Studies with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and memantine yielded mixed results in healthy older subjects ranging from improvement to no changes or even worsened cognitive performance [ 30 ]. Single dose and multiple doses studies with stimulants modafinil and methylphenidate [ 74 ] and drugs acting on dopamine levodopa, tolcapone, pramipexole [ 29 ] also provided mixed results. However, the extant evidence supporting such a strategy is limited, inconclusive, and difficult to translate to clinical practice. Currently, there is no evidence of a positive effect of cognitive enhancement drugs on the SCD population as most studies involved healthy young individuals or the psychiatric populations, mainly using single doses with no long-term treatment response evaluated. Herbal extracts, in particular Panax ginseng , Gingko biloba , and Bacopa monnieri , occupy a prominent position in the bestseller list of drugs administered to combat aging. Although used over centuries for cognitive improvement and other indications, there is a complete lack of evidence of the benefit of these herbal products in SCD individuals. Two old small studies on Bacopa monnieri in individuals with memory complaints suggest a potential effect on some aspect of memory function or on attention tests that still need to be confirmed [ 76 , 77 ]. In healthy subjects, Panax ginseng showed some evidence of improvement in some aspects of working memory and reaction times [ 78 ], but the poor strength of evidence and unreproducible results limit the ability to draw any conclusions [ 79 ]. One study showed that this herbal extract might improve attention and reaction times, whereas no effect was observed on other cognitive domains [ 14 ]. However, there is no convincing evidence that Gingko biloba extracts have a positive effect on any aspect of memory, executive function, and attention in healthy people after acute or longer-term administration [ 80 , 81 , 82 ]. Considering that the pathology in neurodegenerative disorders starts decades before the symptoms appear, the main objective of this work was to rigorously review techniques to make an actionable clinical recommendation to enhance cognition in SCD individuals. The systematic review on CMPT targeting SCD individuals showed positive and clinically relevant findings. Based on GRADE, we found a high quality of evidence that CMPT improved metamemory. There is moderate quality of evidence that CMPT improved executive functions, attention, and global cognition. Moreover, we found moderate quality of evidence that the positive impact on outcomes is transferable to daily life functioning generalization. Finally, we found low quality of evidence that CMPT improved objective memory, subjective memory, motivation, mood, and quality of life, as well as a transfer to other cognitive functions. Nevertheless, the heterogeneity in study designs and in CMPT in terms of content, dose, and duration motivated further analysis. Looking thoroughly at the impact of the different interventions, we found that learning strategies were efficient to improve objective memory, whereas repeated practice improved attention and executive function skills. This is highly interesting for clinicians. The effect of mindfulness-based intervention in the SCD population was addressed by only 2 RCT studies with qualitative efficacy on subjective memory and metamemory, mood, well-being and quality of life [ 32 , 37 ]. Those impacts on cognition and psycho-affective factors were consistent with studies on more diverse populations age, pathology [ 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ]. Since depression is one of the main modifiable factors of cognitive decline, mindfulness is an interesting intervention by itself or combined with other techniques. Taken together, mindfulness-based interventions are potentially efficient trainings to enhance cognitive abilities in users with SCD. However, studies with RCT designs, larger sample sizes, longer follow-up and active and passive control groups are needed. Importantly, there is a lack of quantification and description of interventions using meditation, which could be improved using methods such as the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification Framework [ 21 ]. The fact that repeated training and strategic learning showed an improvement on outcomes that is significantly higher than physical training, does not mean that the latter has no impact on these outcomes. Both studies that imply physical training as a unique intervention showed a significant improvement on objective memory and on global cognition [ 39 , 41 ]. However, some limitations must be considered. The literature research has been performed only on one database Pubmed , and this might have limited our findings. Besides, since some papers in the current review have been published before the introduction of the Jessen criteria [ 88 ], they included SCD patients with cognitive disorders. We addressed this limitation through GRADE analysis risk of bias, see supplementary material for details [ 88 ]. The overall current evidence suggests that an intervention combining multiple sessions of NIBS and cognitive training may lead to clinically meaningful improvements in cognition and functional independence in the aging population. However, the high heterogeneity across studies in stimulation intensity, duration, and number of sessions, as well as in the cognitive outcomes, prevent comparing the study results, and to identify the parameter set with the highest efficacy potential. So far, NIBS has mainly been used with a one-size-fits-all approach. Therefore, NIBS potential should be exploited before the significant neuronal loss has occurred [ 89 ], with a well-characterized sample, a precise definition of the stimulation dose based on individual anatomy [ 90 , 91 ] , and adopting a single-subject approach [ 92 , 93 ]. In addition to this point, the role of individual features, such as demographics e. Besides, properly designed, larger, and longer trials on subjects characterized by a higher risk for dementia e. Overall, the precise NIBS contribution should be evaluated, as an add-on, towards a precision medicine approach implementing all the aspects previously mentioned. Despite the promising results with rTMS administration, the lack of portability, usage complexity, and the cost, represents important challenges in the implementation of this technique in the Brain Health Service. In this sense, tDCS-based neuromodulation seems to have a higher potential, due to the low cost of the instrumentation, little contraindications with a good safety record, high portability, and easy-to-implement with concurrent task execution in an ecological context. This review on the effect of drugs on SCD cognition and healthy individuals included the main pharmacological cognitive enhancement CED or smart drugs, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, Memantine, antidepressant and herbal extracts Panax ginseng , Gingko biloba , and Bacopa monnieri. Based on this review, there is no conclusive argument to recommend pharmacological cognitive enhancement or herbal extracts on SCD or worried-well individuals. Future studies on drugs need to pay attention to interindividual variability of response, refine testing instruments to minimize ceiling effects, and incorporate neuroimaging and genetic biomarkers to optimize treatment response prediction. The assessment of the benefit of herbal extracts in improving cognition and their risk profile—generally safe—remains challenging due to the presence of various types of preparations, dosage, duration and type of administration, multiple active components that may influence numerous neuronal, metabolic, and hormonal systems involved in neuro-behavioral processes [ 94 ]. Further, most studies suffer from poor design and heterogenous methods and provide inconsistent or even contradictory results. In addition, any effect is subtle at best and may be very sensitive to contextual and motivational factors. Recent studies on cognitive enhancement techniques in SCD population are showing encouraging results. Even though it is too early to provide recommendations on the effect of drugs and NIBS, specific dedicated CMPT seems to have a positive effect on cognition as well as on related domains and are therefore recommended. Moreover, CMPT, including mindfulness meditation, are an interesting target as they are generally harmless, inexpensive, and easy to implement on both clinical face-to-face setting and using virtual tools. Consequently, they are actionable and accessible, reducing inequality across the population. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study. Jessen F, et al. A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. The characterisation of subjective cognitive decline. Lancet Neurol. Slot RER, et al. Subjective cognitive decline and rates of incident Alzheimer's disease and non-Alzheimer's disease dementia. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Livingston G, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: report of the Lancet Commission. Altomare D, Molinuevo JL, Ritchie C, Ribaldi F, Carrera E, Dubois B, Jessen F, McWhirter L, Scheltens P, van der Flier WM, Vellas B, Démonet JF, Frisoni GB. Brain Health Services: Organization, structure and challenges for implementation. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 1 of 6. Alzheimer's Res Ther. Ranson JM, Rittman T, Hayat S, Brayne C, Jessen F, Blennow K, van Duijn C, Barkhof F, Tang E, Mummery CJ, Stephan BCM, Altomare D, Frisoni GB, Ribaldi F, Molinuevo JL, Scheltens P, Llewellyn, DJ. Modifiable risk factors for dementia and dementia risk profiling. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 2 of 6. Visser LNC, Minguillon C, Sánchez-Benavides G, Abramowicz M, Altomare D, Fauria K, Frisoni GB, Georges J, Ribaldi F, Scheltens P, van der Schaar J, Zwan M, van der Flier WM, Molinuevo JL. Dementia risk communication. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 3 of 6. Solomon A, Stephen R, Altomare D, Carrera E, Frisoni GB, Kulmala J, Molinuevo JL, Nilsson P, Ngandu T, Ribaldi F, Vellas B, Scheltens P, Kivipelto M. Multidomain interventions: state-of-the-art and future directions for protocols to implement precision dementia risk reduction. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 4 of 6. Brioschi Guevara A, Bieler M, Altomare D, Berthier M, Csajka C, Dautricourt S, Démonet JF, Dodich A, Frisoni GB, Miniussi C, Molinuevo JL, Ribaldi F, Scheltens P, Chételat G. Protocols for cognitive enhancement. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 5 of 6. Milne R, Altomare D, Ribaldi F, Molinuevo JL, Frisoni GB, Brayne C. Societal and equity challenges for Brain Health Services. A user manual for Brain Health Services — Part 6 of 6. Smart CM, et al. Non-Pharmacologic Interventions for Older Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Preliminary Recommendations. Neuropsychol Rev. Bhome R, et al. Interventions for subjective cognitive decline: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. Teixeira CVL, et al. Cognitive and structural cerebral changes in amnestic mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease after multicomponent training. Alzheimers Dement N Y. Article Google Scholar. Belleville S, Boller B. Comprendre le stade compensatoire de la maladie d'Alzheimer et agir pour promouvoir la cognition et la plasticite cerebrale. Can J Exp Psychol. Heinzel S, et al. Transfer Effects to a Multimodal Dual-Task after Working Memory Training and Associated Neural Correlates in Older Adults - A Pilot Study. Front Hum Neurosci. Belleville S, et al. The pattern and loci of training-induced brain changes in healthy older adults are predicted by the nature of the intervention. PLoS One. Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar. Mortimer JA, Stern Y. Physical exercise and activity may be important in reducing dementia risk at any age. Lutz A, et al. Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends Cogn Sci. Investigating the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness-related practices from a neurocognitive perspective. Am Psychol. Kabat-Zinn J. Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. In: Full Catastrophe Living Revised Edition : Random House Publishing Group; Google Scholar. Sikkes SAM, Tang Y, Jutten RJ, Wesselman LMP, Turkstra LS, Brodaty H, Clare L, Cassidy-Eagle E, Cox KL, Chételat G, Dautricourt S, Dhana K, Dodge H, Dröes RM, Hampstead BM, Holland T, Lampit A, Laver K, Lutz A, Lautenschlager NT, McCurry SM, Meiland FJM, Morris MC, Mueller KD, Peters R, Ridel G, Spector A, van der Steen JT, Tamplin J, Thompson Z, ISTAART Non-pharmacological Interventions Professional Interest Area, Bahar-Fuchs A. Toward a theory-based specification of non-pharmacological treatments in aging and dementia: Focused reviews and methodological recommendations. Epub Nov Poisnel G, et al. The Age-Well randomized controlled trial of the Medit-Ageing European project: Effect of meditation or foreign language training on brain and mental health in older adults. Miniussi C, Rossini PM. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in cognitive rehabilitation. Neuropsychol Rehabil. Rossi S, et al. Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research. Clin Neurophysiol. Antal A, et al. Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Fertonani A, Miniussi C. Transcranial Electrical Stimulation: What We Know and Do Not Know About Mechanisms. Burke SN, Barnes CA. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. d'Angelo LC, Savulich G, Sahakian BJ. Lifestyle use of drugs by healthy people for enhancing cognition, creativity, motivation and pleasure. Br J Pharmacol. Brühl AB, Sahakian BJ. Drugs, games, and devices for enhancing cognition: implications for work and society. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Repantis D, Laisney O, Heuser I. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and memantine for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res. Cheng CP, Chiu-Wa Lam L, Cheng ST. The Effects of Integrated Attention Training for Older Chinese Adults With Subjective Cognitive Complaints: A Randomized Controlled Study. J Appl Gerontol. Innes KE, et al. Effects of Meditation and Music-Listening on Blood Biomarkers of Cellular Aging and Alzheimer's Disease in Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: An Exploratory Randomized Clinical Trial. J Alzheimers Dis. Kwok TC, et al. Effectiveness of cognitive training in Chinese older people with subjective cognitive complaints: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. Oh SJ, et al. Effects of smartphone-based memory training for older adults with subjective memory complaints: a randomized controlled trial. Aging Ment Health. Pereira-Morales AJ, et al. Efficacy of a computer-based cognitive training program in older people with subjective memory complaints: a randomized study. Int J Neurosci. Small GW, et al. Effects of a day healthy longevity lifestyle program on cognition and brain function. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. Mindfulness Training for Older Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: Results from a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Barnes DE, et al. Bibcode : PNAS.. Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten. June Clinical Neuropsychiatry. Neural Plasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Bibcode : NYASA Current Psychiatry Reports. The Routledge Handbook of Neuroethics. ISBN The Exercise Effect on Mental Health: Neurobiological Mechanisms. CRC Press. ACS Chemical Neuroscience. International Journal of Healthcare Management. hdl : Translational Psychiatry. Frontiers in Big Data. Science and Engineering Ethics. Philosophical Engineering. Cognitive Systems Research. Washington Post. Retrieved 24 April Scientific American. Retrieved 19 March Archives of Internal Medicine. WIREs Cognitive Science. Emerging Technologies for Economic Development. Science, Technology and Innovation Studies. Springer International Publishing. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. Substance Use and Misuse. PLOS ONE. Park, S. Neural predictors of cognitive improvement by multi-strategic memory training based on metamemory in older adults with subjective memory complaints. Modular brain network organization predicts response to cognitive training in older adults. PLoS ONE 11 , e Baniqued, P. Brain network modularity predicts exercise-related executive function gains in older adults. Iordan, A. Aging and network properties: stability over time and links with learning during working memory training. Mathewson, K. Different slopes for different folks: alpha and delta EEG power predict subsequent video game learning rate and improvements in cognitive control tasks. Psychophysiology 49 , — Smid, C. Toward a science of effective cognitive training. Jaeggi, S. Scientific American 24 September van Bueren, N. Personalized brain stimulation for effective neurointervention across participants. PLoS Comput. Ward, N. Enhanced learning through multimodal training: evidence from a comprehensive cognitive, physical fitness, and neuroscience intervention. Hsu, W. Delayed enhancement of multitasking performance: effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on the prefrontal cortex. Cortex 69 , — Parametric effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation on multitasking performance. Brain Stimul. Enhancement of multitasking performance and neural oscillations by transcranial alternating current stimulation. PLoS ONE 12 , e Santarnecchi, E. Individual differences and specificity of prefrontal gamma frequency-tACS on fluid intelligence capabilities. Cortex 75 , 33—43 Kidgell, D. Induction of cortical plasticity and improved motor performance following unilateral and bilateral transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex. Nitsche, M. Timing-dependent modulation of associative plasticity by general network excitability in the human motor cortex. Goldthorpe, R. A systematic review of non-invasive brain stimulation applications to memory in healthy aging. Front Neurol. Neuling, T. Orchestrating neuronal networks: sustained after-effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation depend upon brain states. Front Hum. Silvanto, J. State-dependency in brain stimulation studies of perception and cognition. Coffey, C. Quantitative cerebral anatomy of the aging human brain: a cross-sectional study using magnetic resonance imaging. Neurology 42 , — Ivanisevic, J. Metabolic drift in the aging brain. Aging 8 , — Burke, S. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Berryhill, M. tDCS selectively improves working memory in older adults with more education. Pena-Gomez, C. APOE status modulates the changes in network connectivity induced by brain stimulation in non-demented elders. PLoS ONE 7 , e Learmonth, G. The implications of state-dependent tDCS effects in aging: behavioural response is determined by baseline performance. Neuropsychologia 74 , — Kasten, F. Integrating electric field modeling and neuroimaging to explain inter-individual variability of tACS effects. Murphy, D. Age-related differences in volumes of subcortical nuclei, brain matter, and cerebrospinal fluid in healthy men as measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Mahdavi, S. Computational human head models of tDCS: influence of brain atrophy on current density distribution. Stecher, H. Absence of alpha-tACS aftereffects in darkness reveals importance of taking derivations of stimulation frequency and individual alpha variability into account. Zanto, T. Individual differences in neuroanatomy and neurophysiology predict effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation. Arean, P. High Quality Psychotherapy Research: From Pilot to Multisite Trials Oxford Univ. Conducting a fully mobile and randomised clinical trial for depression: access, engagement and expense. BMJ Innov. Nelson-Kakulla, B. html Zickuhr, K. Tablet Ownership ed Life, P. Quinantilla, E. Cell phones helping minorities close the gap on technology access. Christian Science Monitor Marloew, C. Minorities quickest to adopt smartphones. Digital Media Wave Price, M. mHealth: a mechanism to deliver more accessible, more effective mental health care. Friend, S. App-enabled trial participation: tectonic shift or tepid rumble? Muller, I. Telephone-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Telecare 17 , — Currie, M. Attitudes towards the use and acceptance of eHealth technologies: a case study of older adults living with chronic pain and implications for rural healthcare. BMC Health Serv. Lei, H. Weizenbaum, E. Cognition in context: understanding the everyday predictors of cognitive performance in a new era of measurement. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 8 , e Richardson, R. Sociodemographic inequalities in depression among older adults: cross-sectional evidence from 18 countries. Lancet Psychiatry 7 , — Read, J. A randomized controlled trial of Internet-delivered cognitive behaviour therapy to prevent the development of depressive disorders in older adults with multimorbidity. Dermody, G. The role of virtual reality in improving health outcomes for community-dwelling older adults: systematic review. Internet Res. Abdi, S. Emerging technologies with potential care and support applications for older people: review of gray literature. JMIR Aging 3 , e Download references. We would like to thank R. Anguera for artistic and stylistic contributions to the figures as well as our colleagues, T. Zanto, S. Niblett, and C. Thompson for their contributions to several of the projects described in this article. The authors of this Perspective were supported in part by NIH grants RAG D. and A. and J. and the Neuroscape Network of philanthropists who have supported our aging and cognitive intervention research over the last decade. Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. David A. Ziegler, Joaquin A. Anguera, Courtney L. Gallen, Wan-Yu Hsu, Peter E. Neuroscape, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Gallen, Peter E. Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. were responsible for conception and design, drafting, and substantial revisions. were responsible for drafting and substantial revisions. Correspondence to David A. Ziegler or Adam Gazzaley. is co-founder, shareholder, BOD member, and advisor for Akili Interactive, a company that produces therapeutic video games. is shareholder and advisor for Neuroelectrics, a company that produces non-invasive brain stimulation devices and for Empatica, a company that produces biophysiological recording devices. The other authors declare no potential competing interests. Nature Aging thanks Sara Czaja and the other, anonymous, reviewer s for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Reprints and permissions. Leveraging technology to personalize cognitive enhancement methods in aging. Nat Aging 2 , — Download citation. Received : 12 July Accepted : 11 May Published : 17 June Issue Date : June Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature nature aging perspectives article. Download PDF. Subjects Cognitive ageing Predictive markers Psychology. Abstract As population aging advances at an increasing rate, efforts to help people maintain or improve cognitive function late in life are critical. An umbrella review of randomized control trials on the effects of physical exercise on cognition Article 27 March The use of commercial computerised cognitive games in older adults: a meta-analysis Article Open access 17 September Mechanisms underlying training-induced cognitive change Article 12 January Main Population aging — the increasing percentage of older adults OA in a community — is poised to become one of the most significant social transformations of the twenty-first century, with implications for nearly all sectors of society 1. Box 1 A glossary of key terms 3D head-mounted display virtual reality HMD VR : Participants are visually and auditorily immersed in a virtual environment using HMD VR, in which they can easily discern the dimension of depth 3D because imagery is presented via binocular, curved-field lenses mounted in the headset. Full size image. Emerging closed-loop cognitive enhancement technologies In this section, we provide brief examples of emerging approaches to cognitive enhancement that rely on closed-loop designs and new technologies that show promise for transforming the field see Fig. Toward a precision-medicine approach to cognitive enhancement The OA population is extremely heterogeneous Non-invasive brain stimulation to augment cognitive enhancement An example of a technology-based, non-pharmacological strategy for enhancing cognition in aging that has benefited from a precision-medicine approach is non-invasive brain stimulation NIBS. Mobile technology to validate cognitive enhancement approaches Testing hypotheses about the factors that predict or moderate treatment responses in the remarkably heterogenous OA population requires large and diverse cohort samples. Increasing access to cognitive enhancement technologies Relevant to this discussion, more OA are embracing new technology every year. The future of technology-based cognitive enhancement We have reviewed several approaches in which technology can aid in the personalization of cognitive enhancement in aging, but other emerging technologies also offer exciting new avenues for innovation. References United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, Population Division. Article PubMed Google Scholar Ward, A. Article PubMed Google Scholar Kivipelto, M. Article PubMed Google Scholar Sala, G. Article PubMed Google Scholar Hou, J. Article PubMed Google Scholar Teixeira-Santos, A. Article PubMed Google Scholar Lampit, A. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Rebok, G. Article CAS Google Scholar Smith, G. Article Google Scholar Wu, Z. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Sánchez-Izquierdo, M. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Schechter, G. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Mishra, J. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hill, N. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Anguera, J. Article Google Scholar Verhaeghen, P. Article PubMed Google Scholar Anguera, J. Article PubMed Google Scholar Mishra, J. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Berry, A. Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar Rolle, C. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Jagust, W. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Naveh-Benjamin, M. Article PubMed Google Scholar Petersen, R. Article PubMed Google Scholar Wais, P. Article PubMed Google Scholar Roediger, H. Article PubMed Google Scholar Kempermann, G. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Bilkey, D. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar McAvoy, K. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Wais, P. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Kolarik, B. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Elor, A. Article Google Scholar Li, G. Article PubMed Google Scholar Parsons, T. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Seifert, A. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Clemenson, G. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Ng, A. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Colcombe, S. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Brown, B. Article CAS Google Scholar Middleton, L. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Coelho, F. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Cotman, C. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Bekinschtein, P. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Jin, K. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Nakajima, S. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Rhyu, I. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Angelucci, F. Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar Vinogradov, S. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Jolles, D. Article PubMed Google Scholar Sakaki, K. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Mohammed, A. Book Google Scholar Shatil, E. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Theill, N. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Pichierri, G. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Li, K. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Yang, C. Article PubMed Google Scholar Gavelin, H. Article PubMed Google Scholar Tang, Y. Article PubMed Google Scholar Klimecki, O. Article PubMed Google Scholar Lutz, A. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Saini, G. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Reangsing, C. Article PubMed Google Scholar Kozasa, E. Article PubMed Google Scholar Morone, N. Article PubMed Google Scholar Luders, E. PubMed Google Scholar van Agteren, J. Article PubMed Google Scholar Zeidan, F. Article PubMed Google Scholar Deci, E. Article CAS Google Scholar Hudson, J. |
| Leveraging technology to personalize cognitive enhancement methods in aging | Mirza NR, Cognitive function enhancement methods Cognitife. Representing a high percentage of Nootropic for Brain Health seeking Tropical Fish Tanks in memory clinics for whom specific instructions Cognirive lacking [ 3 ], the definition of interventions to reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in these subjects is a clinical need that is unmet. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Lancet Neurol. search Search by keyword or author Search. |
| Frontiers | The Psychonauts’ World of Cognitive Enhancers | Sign me up. Home Blog Store Team About CCE Reviews Contact Login. Does staying in school make you smarter? Cognitive health is increasingly recognized as a key component of overall health and wellness Bart et al. Gavelin et al. |
| REVIEW article | Appl Cognitive Psych — Cinel C, Valeriani D, Poli R Neurotechnologies for human cognitive augmentation: current state of the art and future prospects. Clark VP, Coffman BA, Mayer AR, Weisend MP, Lane TD, Calhoun VD, Raybourn EM, Garcia CM, Wassermann EM TDCS guided using fMRI significantly accelerates learning to identify concealed objects. Neuroimage — Dauvermann MR, Lee G, Dawson N Glutamatergic regulation of cognition and functional brain connectivity: insights from pharmacological, genetic and translational schizophrenia research. Br J Pharmacol — Dean AC, Sevak RJ, Monterosso JR, Hellemann G, Sugar CA, London ED Acute modafinil effects on attention and inhibitory control in methamphetamine-dependent humans. J Stud Alcohol Drugs — Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB The job demands—resources model of burnout. J Appl Psychol — DeSantis AD, Webb EM, Noar SM Illicit use of prescription ADHD medications on a college campus: a multi-methodological approach. J Am Coll Health — Diekelmann S Sleep for cognitive enhancement. Front Syst Neurosci Diekelmann S, Born J The memory function of sleep. Nat Rev Neurosci — Dietz P The influence of sports on cognitive task performance—a critical overview. In: Hildt E, Franke A eds Cognitive enhancement. Trends in augmentation of human performance, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 67— Chapter Google Scholar. Dresler M, Sandberg A, Ohla K, Bublitz C, Trenado C, Mroczko-Wasowicz A, Kühn S, Repantis D Non-pharmacological cognitive enhancement. Neuropharmacology — Dresler M, Sandberg A, Bublitz C, Ohla K, Trenado C, Mroczko-Wasowicz A, Kühn S, Repantis D Hacking the brain: dimensions of cognitive enhancement. ACS Chem Neurosci — Dumay N, Gaskell MG Sleep-associated changes in mental representation of spoken words. Duvall J Enhancing the benefits of outdoor walking with cognitive engagement strategies. Eckardt N, Braun C, Kibele A Instability resistance training improves working memory, processing speed and response inhibition in healthy older adults: a double-blinded randomised controlled trial. Sci Rep Einöther SJ, Giesbrecht T Caffeine as an attention enhancer: Reviewing existing assumptions. Eißfeldt H, Heintz A Ability requirements for DFS controllers—Current and future. In: Eißfeldt H, Heil MC, Broach D eds Staffing the ATM system: The selection of air traffic controllers. Ashgate, Aldershot, pp 13— Ellenkamp JJH, Brouwers EPM, Embregts PJCM, Joosen MCW, van Weeghel J Work environment-related factors in obtaining and maintaining work in a competitive employment setting for employees with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review. J Occup Rehabil — Emerson E Poverty and people with intellectual disabilities. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev — Erskine FF, Ellis JR, Ellis KA, Stuber E, Hogan K, Miller V, Moore E, Bartholomeusz C, Harrison BJ, Lee B, Phan KL, Liley D, Nathan PJ Evidence for synergistic modulation of early information processing by nicotinic and muscarinic receptors in humans. Etnier JL, Salazar W, Landers DM, Petruzzello SJ, Han M, Nowell P The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis. J Sport Exercise Psy — Farah MJ, Haimm C, Sankoorikal G, Chatterjee A When we enhance cognition with Adderall, do we sacrifice creativity? A preliminary study. Farah MJ, Smith M, Ilieva I, Hamilton R Cognitive Enhancement. Cogn Sci — Fecteau S, Pascual-Leone A, Zald DH, Liguori P, Théoret H, Boggio PS, Fregni F Activation of prefrontal cortex by transcranial direct current stimulation reduces appetite for risk during ambiguous decision making. J Neurosci — Feltman KA, Hayes AM, Bernhardt KA, Nwala E, Kelley AM Viability of tDCS in military environments for performance enhancement: a systematic review. Mil Med e53—e Finke K, Dodds CM, Bublak P, Regenthal R, Baumann F, Manly T, Müller U Effects of modafinil and methylphenidate on visual attention capacity: a TVA-based study. Psychopharmacol — Flöel A, Rösser N, Michka O, Knecht S, Breitenstein C Noninvasive brain stimulation improves language learning. Foroughi CK, Monfort SS, Paczynski M, Greenwood PM Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A — Foster A A nonlinear model of information-seeking behavior. J Am Soc Inf Sci Tec — Foster A, Ford N Serendipity and information seeking: an empirical study. J Doc — Fox KC, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: a review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations. Fregni F, Boggio PS, Nitsche M, Bermpohl F, Antal A, Feredoes E, Marcolin MA, Rigonatti SP, Silva MTA, Paulus W, Pascual-Leone A Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory. Exp Brain Res — Fujino M, Ueda Y, Mizuhara H, Saiki J, Nomura M Open monitoring meditation reduces the involvement of brain regions related to memory function. Fumagalli M, Vergari M, Pasqualetti P, Marceglia S, Mameli F, Ferrucci R, Mrakic-Sposta S, Zago S, Sartori G, Pravettoni G, Barbieri S, Cappa S, Priori A Brain switches utilitarian behavior: does gender make the difference? PLoS ONE 5:e Technical report, Future BNCI. Galea JM, Celnik P Brain polarization enhances the formation and retention of motor memories. J Neurophysiol Girling K, Thorpe J, Auger A A framework to assess the military ethics of human enhancement technologies. Report No. Ottawa, Canada: Defence and Research Development Canada. Gothe NP, McAuley E Yoga and cognition: a meta-analysis of chronic and acute effects. Psychosom Med — Greely HT, Campbell P, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler R, Gazzaniga M, Farah MJ Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature — Greely HT, Ramos KM, Grady C Neuroethics in the age of brain projects. Neuron — Green CS, Bavelier D, Kramer AF, Vinogradov S, Ansorge U, Ball KK, Bingel U, Chein JM, Colzato LS, Edwards JD, Facoetti A, Gazzaley A, Gathercole SE, Ghisletta P, Gori S, Granic I, Hillman CH, Hommel B, Jaeggi SM, Kanske P, Witt CM Improving methodological standards in behavioral interventions for cognitive enhancement. J Cognit Enhanc — Guest DE Human resource management and employee well-being: towards a new analytic framework. Hum Resour Manag J — Hall WD, Lucke JC Enhancement uses of neuropharmacologicals: more caution and skepticism. Addiction — Hartig T, Jahncke H Letter to the editor: attention restoration in natural environments: Mixed mythical metaphors for meta-analysis. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev — Hartig T, Mang M, Evans GW Restorative effects of natural environment experience. Environ Behav — Harvey PD, Keefe RSE Methods for delivering and evaluating the efficacy of cognitive enhancement. In: Kantak KM, Wettstein JG eds Cognitive enhancement, handbook of experimental pharmacology, th edn. Springer, Sham, pp 5— Heatherley SV, Hayward RC, Seers HE, Rogers PJ Cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood, and pressor effects of caffeine after 4, 6 and 8 h caffeine abstinence. Herpich F, Melnick MD, Agosta S, Huxlin KR, Tadin D, Battelli L Boosting learning efficiency with noninvasive brain stimulation in intact and brain-damaged humans. Hildt E Multi-person brain-to-brain interfaces: ethical issues. Front Neurosci Hill AT, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE Effects of anodal transcranial direction current stimulation on working memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis of findings from healthy and neuropsychiatric populations. Hill AT, Rogasch NC, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE Impact of concurrent task performance on transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS -induced changes in cortical physiology and working memory. Cortex — Hodgetts HM, Vachon F, Chamberland C, Tremblay S See no evil: Cognitive challenges of security surveillance and monitoring. J Appl Res Mem Cogn — Horvath JC, Forte JD, Carter O Quantitative review finds no evidence of cognitive effects in healthy populations from single-session transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS. Ilieva I, Boland J, Farah MJ Objective and subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people. Imburgio MJ, Orr JM Effects of prefrontal tDCS on executive function: Methodological considerations revealed by meta-analysis. Neuropsychologica — Immink MA, Colzato LS, Stolte M, Hommel B Sequence learning enhancement following single-session meditation is dependent on metacontrol mode and experienced effort. J Cogn Enhanc — Ingvar M, Ambros-Ingerson J, Davis M, Granger R, Kessler M, Rogers GA, Schehr RS, Lynch G Enhancement by an ampakine of memory encoding in humans. Exp Neurol — Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Shah P, Jonides J The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Mem Cognit — Jarrold C, Towse JN Individual differences in working memory. Neuroscience — Jett QR, George JM Work interrupted: a closer look at the role of interruptions in organizational life. Acad Manage Rev — Kamboj SK, Curran HV Scopolamine induces impairments in the recognition of human facial expressions of anger and disgust. Kaplan S The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. Kaplan S, Berman MG Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self-regulation. Perspect Psychol Sci — Karbach J, Verhaeghen P Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Karthikeyan R, Mehta RK Towards a closed-loop neurostimulation platform for augmenting operator vigilance. Proc IEEE Sys Man Cybern. Kim EJ, Jeong DU Transdermal scopolamine alters phasic REM activity in normal young adults. Sleep — Knoch D, Nitsche MA, Fischbacher U, Eisenegger C, Pascual-Leone A, Fehr E Studying the neurobiology of social interaction with transcranial direct current stimulation: the example of punishing unfairness. Cereb Cortex — Kopelman MD The cholinergic neurotransmitter system in human memory and dementia: a review. Q J Exp Psychol — Kozhevnikov M, Li Y, Wong S, Obana T, Amihai I Do enhanced states exist? Boosting cognitive capacities through an action video-game. Cognition — Kubanek J Neuromodulation with transcranial focused ultrasound. Neurosurg Focus E Lapenta OM, Vlasek CA, Brunoni AR, Boggio PS An ethical discussion of the use of transcranial direct current stimulation for cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals: a fictional case study. Psychol Neurosci — Lauenroth A, Ioannidis AE, Teichmann B Influenced of combined physical and cognitive training on cognition: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr Lefaucheur J-P, Wendling F Mechanisms of action of tDCS: a brief and practical overview. Clin Neurophysiol — Lerner I, Gluck M Sleep and the extraction of hidden regularities: a systematic review and the importance of temporal rules. Sleep Med Rev — Li G, Zhou S, Kong Z, Guo M Closed-loop attention restoration theory for virtual reality-based attentional engagement enhancement. Sensors Lin YH, Tsai CC, Sullivan WC, Chang PJ, Chang CY Does awareness effect the restorative function and perception of street trees? Loukopoulos LD, Dismukes RK, Barshi I The multitasking myth: handling complexity in real-world operations. Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham. Ludyga S, Gerber M, Püshse U, Looser VN, Kamijo K Systematic review and meta-analysis investigating moderators of long-term effects of exercise on cognition in healthy individuals. Nat Hum Behav — Lynch G, Granger R, Ambros-Ingerson J, Davis CM, Kessler M, Schehr R Evidence that a positive modulator of AMPA-type glutamate receptors improves delayed recall in aged humans. Madrigal A Readers brain-enhancing drug regimens. Wired magazine. Condé Nast, New York. Mancuso LE, Ilieva IP, Hamilton RH, Farah MJ Does transcranial direct current stimulation improve healthy working memory? A meta-analytic review. Mander BA, Santhanam S, Saletin JM, Walker MP Wake deterioration and sleep restoration of human learning. Curr Biol R—R Maraver MJ, Bajo MT, Gomez-Ariza J Training on working memory and inhibitory control in young adults. Rev Que Psychol — Marois A, Hodgetts HM, Chamberland C, Williot A, Tremblay S Who can best find Waldo? Exploring individual differences that bolster performance in a security surveillance microworld. Marois A, Lafond D Towards augmenting humans in the field: A review of cognitive enhancement methods and applications. In: Culbertson J, Perfors A, Rabagliati H, Ramenzoni V eds Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, vol. Masley S, Roetzheim R, Gualtieri T Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility. J Clin Psychol Med Settings — Mattay VS, Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Heaton I, Frank JA, Coppola R, Berman KF, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR Effects of dextroamphetamine on cognitive performance and cortical activation. McIntyre CC, Grill WM Excitation of central nervous system neurons by nonuniform electric fields. Biophys J — Medina J, Cason S No evidential value in samples of transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS studies of cognition and working memory in healthy populations. Michel G, Le Nagard E Favoriser la sérendipité pour des recherches plus créatives. Décis Market —9. Ministry of Defence Human augmentation—the dawn of a new paradigm. A strategic implications project. UK Ministry of Defence, Swindon. Mohamed AD The effects of modafinil on convergent and divergent thinking of creativity: a randomized controlled trial. J Creative Behav — Moore P Enhancing me: the hope and the hype of human enhancement. Moreau D, Chou E The acute effect of high-intensity exercise on executive function: a meta-analysis. Moreau D, Conway ARA Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs. Int Rev Sport Exer P — Müller U, Rowe JB, Rittman T, Lewis C, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ Effects of modafinil on non-verbal cognition, task enjoyment and creative thinking in healthy volunteers. Murray JM Invasive augmentation technology in Canadian defence policy. Can Milit J — Nehlig A Is caffeine a cognitive enhancer? J Alzheimers Dis — Nelson JT, McKinley RA, Philips C, McIntire L, Goodyear C, Kreiner A, Monforton L The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS on multitasking throughput capacity. Nibbeling N, Oudejans RR, Ubink EM, Daanen HA The effects of anxiety and exercise-induced fatigue on shooting accuracy and cognitive performance in infantry soldiers. Ergonomics — Nielsen K, Nielsen MB, Ogbonnaya C, Känsälä M, Saari E, Isaksson K Workplace resources to improve both employee well-being and performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Work Stress — Noack H, Lövden M, Schmiedek F On the validity and generality of transfer effects in cognitive training research. Psychol Res — Ohly H, White MP, Wheeler BW, Bethel A, Ukoumunne OC, Nikolaou V, Garside R Attention restoration theory: a systematic review of the attention restoration potential of exposure to natural environments. Ohn SH, Park CI, Yoo WK, Ko MH, Choi KP, Kim GM, Lee YT, Kim YH Time-dependent effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on the enhancement of working memory. NeuroReport — Pace-Schott EF, Nave G, Morgan A, Spencer RMC Sleep-dependent modulation of affectively guided decision-making. J Sleep Res — Papaionnou D, Sutton A, Carroll C, Booth A, Wong R Literature searching for social science systematic reviews: consideration of a range of search techniques. Health Info Libr J — Parasuraman R Neuroergonomics: research and practice. Theor Issues Ergon Sci — Parasuraman R, McKinley RA Using noninvasive brain stimulation to accelerate learning and enhance human performance. Hum Factors — Pasanen T, Johnson K, Lee K, Korpela K Can nature walks with psychological tasks improve mood, self-reported restoration, and sustained attention? Results from two experimental field studies. Pell GS, Roth Y, Zangen A Modulation of cortical excitability induced by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: influence of timing and geometrical parameters and underlying mechanisms. Plaskin M, Kimmel E, Shoham S Cell-type-selective effects of intramembrane cavitation as a unifying theoretical framework for ultrasonic neuromodulation. Ranjbar-Slamloo Y, Fazlali Z Dopmaine and noradrenaline in the brain; overlapping or dissociate functions? Front Mol Neurosci Repantis D, Schlattmann P, Laisney O, Heuser I Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res — Ricci G Pharmacological human enhancement: an overview of the looming bioethical and regulatory challenges. Front Psychiatry Ritter SM, Strick M, Bos MW, Van Baaren RB, Dijksterhuis A Good morning creativity: task reactivation during sleep enhances beneficial effect of sleep on creative performance. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ, Marston HM, Wilkinson J, Jones GH, Page KJ Comparative effects of ibotenic acid- and quisqualic acid-induced lesions of the substantia innominata on attentional function in the rat: further implications for the role of the cholinergic neurons of the nucleus basalis in cognitive processes. Behav Brain Res — Roberts CA, Jones A, Sumnall H, Gage SH, Montgomery C How effective are pharmaceuticals for cognitive enhancement in healthy adults? Social interaction stimulates and challenges the brain in ways that solitary activities cannot. The amygdala and related structures are deep brain areas crucial for regulating emotions and facilitating memory storage. This and similar studies suggest a strong association between social interaction and brain health in these crucial areas. Maintaining or expanding your social network can, therefore, help ensure overall brain and cognitive health. Challenging the brain with specific activities is the second, more direct means toward cognitive health, such as with the following cognitive exercises and games. Download 3 Free Productivity Exercises PDF These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients with tools to do their deepest, most productive work. There are various high-tech cognitive exercises available through paid programs such as Lumosity. Such programs offer digitally based brain exercises for most ages and ability levels. However, there are also relatively low-tech, low-cost, effective options for cognitive strengthening, available to most individuals with some ingenuity and effort. Harvard Medical School has outlined several of these Godman, , including the following:. The supportive factors, exercises, and games cited above remain valid for maintaining cognitive fitness as we grow older, with certain caveats. For example, a verbal memory task for an older person with encroaching memory problems might be modified to include a 6-item list of words to recall, instead of a item list. Prompts and cues can spur memory and provide the individual with an experience of success. If it is too hard, you risk overwhelming the person. Finding the right cognitive challenge for such individuals allows them to exercise their faculties and experience some success, rather than becoming overwhelmed and frustrated. Neuropsychological testing is one way to assess cognitive health. However, this option can be costly and labor intensive. There are a number of excellent tools available to practitioners for basic screening and tracking of cognitive health. Many of these tools are designed for use with older people, but some are meant for use with younger people as well. This assessment uses patient history, observations by clinicians, and concerns raised by the patient, family, or caregivers. These measures include the General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition, Memory Impairment Screen, and the Mini-Cog brief psychometric test. These supplements include B-complex and E vitamins, minerals such as zinc, herbs such as ginkgo biloba, and other botanicals. The Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory study followed 3, older adult participants over the course of six years, randomly assigned to ginkgo biloba or placebo groups DeKosky et al. The study found no evidence that the supplement slowed cognitive decline or prevented dementia. B-complex vitamins such as B6, B9, and B12 have not been shown to prevent or slow cognitive decline in older adults McMahon et al. Studies have shown that certain supplements such as zinc can have positive effects on frontal or executive function in children and adults Warthon-Medina et al. Recently, a large prospective cohort study followed 5, participants for 9. As always, it is best to consult your physician before taking either approved medications or medical supplements. We have a number of resources that specifically apply to strength assessments and a healthy mind. For some practical resources to get you started, check out some of the following. This handout is a valuable resource you can use to educate children about the benefits of exercise for mental wellness. In particular, it lists several of the emotional and neurochemical benefits of exercise and recommends several forms of exercise children might enjoy. Use it to facilitate discussion about the link between mind and body when talking about the brain and cognitive health. This exercise invites clients to illustrate the gap between the extent to which they are currently using their strengths and the extent to which they could. This exercise effectively gives clients immediate visual feedback on their strength use and can facilitate discussion around plans to increase or optimize strengths use. This measure was created with the help of the Activity Builder at Quenza. Quenza is a platform created by the same team who established PositivePsychology. The Cognitive Fitness Survey can be used for self-reflection. It is designed to assess and track physical and emotional factors that contribute to cognitive health. It also assesses and tracks specific cognitive health dimensions, including attention; short-term, remote, and prospective memory; and organizational capacity. Use them to help others flourish and thrive. For much of their history, clinical psychology and related helping professions focused on assessing and treating emotional, social, and cognitive deficits. With the positive psychology movement in the late s came a different emphasis: finding and building upon strengths. Aspects of health and wellbeing began to be studied more assiduously and became the focus of interventions. Initially, cognitive health was one aspect of overall health and wellbeing that was overlooked by many researchers and practitioners. Fortunately, more recently, cognitive health has begun to receive the attention it deserves, as both a research topic and focus of intervention Aidman, As with other components of health and wellness, cognitive health, including attentional capacity, memory abilities, and organizational and problem-solving skills, can be enhanced with the right support and exercises. Staying physically healthy pays large dividends toward such cognitive fitness. Physical health includes maintaining a heart-healthy diet, sleeping well, and exercising regularly. In addition, basic, cost-effective mental activities and exercises can further boost cognitive fitness. Many of these are enjoyable in their own right and can boost cognitive skills. To be most effective, cognitive activities and exercises should involve as much novelty as possible. To find the right activities, a positive psychology, strengths-based approach might be useful. We hope you enjoyed reading this article. About the author Dr. Jeffrey Gaines earned a Ph. in clinical psychology from Pennsylvania State University in He sees clinical psychology as a practical extension of philosophy and specializes in neuropsychology — having been board-certified in Jeffrey is currently Clinical Director at Metrowest Neuropsychology in Westborough, MA. How useful was this article to you? Not useful at all Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Submit Share this article:. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Have you ever experienced a working state characterized by heightened concentration, a flow-like state, and increased productivity? Effective time management does not come naturally. For that reason, time management books, techniques, and software are a dime a dozen. When guiding your busy [ While difficult to define, perfectionism can drive impossibly high standards and have dangerous consequences. Maintaining that flawless veneer can put your mental and physical wellbeing [ Home Blog Store Team About CCE Reviews Contact Login. Scientifically reviewed by Melissa Madeson, Ph. Helpful PositivePsychology. com Resources A Take-Home Message References. Download PDF. Download 3 Free Productivity Tools Pack PDF By filling out your name and email address below. Your expertise Therapy Coaching Education Counseling Business Healthcare Other. This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged. Video 6 Effective ways to improve cognitive ability. References Aidman, E. Cognitive fitness framework: Towards assessing, training and augmenting individual-difference factors underpinning high-performance cognition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , Cognitive assessment. Clinic-friendly screening for cognitive and mental health problems in school-aged youth with epilepsy. Bart, R. The assessment and measurement of wellness in the clinical medical setting: A systematic review. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience , 15 9—10 , 14— |
Es ist schade, dass ich mich jetzt nicht aussprechen kann - ich beeile mich auf die Arbeit. Aber ich werde befreit werden - unbedingt werde ich schreiben dass ich denke.