This is a device that helps you inject safely and take the right dose. Using an insulin pen does not usually hurt. The needles are very small, as you only inject a small amount just under your skin.

Your diabetes nurse will show you where to inject and how to use your pen. Blood glucose levels usually increase as your pregnancy progresses, so your insulin dose may need to be increased over time. You can usually stop taking insulin once your baby is born. Your diabetes team will advise you on this.

Your doctor or care team will discuss your treatment with you and recommend the insulin treatment they think is best for you. Most people who need insulin treatment for gestational diabetes take a type of rapid-acting insulin brand names include NovoRapid or Humalog before meals.

You may also need another type of insulin that lasts for longer and is taken once a day. This is usually intermediate-acting insulin Insulatard or Humulin I. Insulin is a hormone made by your pancreas that acts like a key to let blood sugar into the cells in your body for use as energy.

During pregnancy, your body makes more hormones and goes through other changes, such as weight gain. All pregnant women have some insulin resistance during late pregnancy. However, some women have insulin resistance even before they get pregnant. They start pregnancy with an increased need for insulin and are more likely to have gestational diabetes.

Having gestational diabetes can increase your risk of high blood pressure during pregnancy. It can also increase your risk of having a large baby that needs to be delivered by cesarean section C-section. Your blood sugar levels will usually return to normal after your baby is born.

You can lower your risk by reaching a healthy body weight after delivery. Visit your doctor to have your blood sugar tested 6 to 12 weeks after your baby is born and then every 1 to 3 years to make sure your levels are on target. Talk to your doctor about how much weight you should gain for a healthy pregnancy.

You can do a lot to manage your gestational diabetes. Go to all your prenatal appointments and follow your treatment plan, including:. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to search.

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Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes— American Diabetes Association American Diabetes Association. This Site. Google Scholar. Get Permissions.

toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu. toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest. Table View Large. Intrauterine exposure to diabetes conveys risks for type 2 diabetes and obesity: a study of discordant sibships. Search ADS. Optimal glycemic control, pre-eclampsia, and gestational hypertension in women with type 1 diabetes in the Diabetes and Pre-eclampsia Intervention Trial.

Use of maternal GHb concentration to estimate the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with prepregnancy diabetes. Peri-conceptional A1C and risk of serious adverse pregnancy outcome in women with type 1 diabetes.

HbA1c in early diabetic pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes: a Danish population-based cohort study of pregnancies in women with type 1 diabetes. Glycaemic control during early pregnancy and fetal malformations in women with type I diabetes mellitus.

Long-term effects of the booster-enhanced READY-Girls preconception counseling program on intentions and behaviors for family planning in teens with diabetes. Preventable health and cost burden of adverse birth outcomes associated with pregestational diabetes in the United States.

Contraceptive use among women with prediabetes and diabetes in a US national sample. Description and comparison of postpartum use of effective contraception among women with and without diabetes. The intrauterine device in women with diabetes mellitus type I and II: a systematic review.

ISRN Obstet Gynecol Accessed 3 October Long-acting reversible contraception-highly efficacious, safe, and underutilized. JAMA ;— ACOG Practice Bulletin No. ACOG Committee Opinion No.

Pregnancy outcome following exposure to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists: a systematic review. Prenatal exposure to HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors: effects on fetal and neonatal outcomes.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. A focused preconceptional and early pregnancy program in women with type 1 diabetes reduces perinatal mortality and malformation rates to general population levels.

Effectiveness of a regional prepregnancy care program in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: benefits beyond glycemic control.

Cost-benefit analysis of preconception care for women with established diabetes mellitus. ATLANTIC DIP: closing the loop: a change in clinical practice can improve outcomes for women with pregestational diabetes.

Implementation of guidelines for multidisciplinary team management of pregnancy in women with pre-existing diabetes or cardiac conditions: results from a UK national survey. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. Insulin requirements throughout pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus: three changes of direction.

The association of falling insulin requirements with maternal biomarkers and placental dysfunction: a prospective study of women with preexisting diabetes in pregnancy. Preprandial versus postprandial blood glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetic pregnancy: a randomized controlled clinical trial.

de Veciana. Postprandial versus preprandial blood glucose monitoring in women with gestational diabetes mellitus requiring insulin therapy.

Maternal postprandial glucose levels and infant birth weight: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development--Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Associations of mid-pregnancy HbA1c with gestational diabetes and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in high-risk Taiwanese women.

HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Glycemic targets in the second and third trimester of pregnancy for women with type 1 diabetes. Reference intervals for hemoglobin A1c in pregnant women: data from an Italian multicenter study.

Fetal growth is increased by maternal type 1 diabetes and HLA DR4-related gene interactions. Risk of macrosomia remains glucose-dependent in a cohort of women with pregestational type 1 diabetes and good glycemic control.

Impact of type 2 diabetes, obesity and glycaemic control on pregnancy outcomes. Glycaemic control throughout pregnancy and risk of pre-eclampsia in women with type I diabetes. Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy.

Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes CONCEPTT : a multicentre international randomised controlled trial. Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes: an observational cohort study of pregnancies.

Translating HbA 1c measurements into estimated average glucose values in pregnant women with diabetes. Gestational diabetes mellitus can be prevented by lifestyle intervention: the Finnish Gestational Diabetes Prevention Study RADIEL : a randomized controlled trial.

A randomized clinical trial of exercise during pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes mellitus and improve pregnancy outcome in overweight and obese pregnant women.

Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care;;30 Suppl. The impact of adoption of the international association of diabetes in pregnancy study group criteria for the screening and diagnosis of gestational diabetes.

Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Dietary intervention in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials on maternal and newborn outcomes.

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Pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of glyburide for treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus. Glibenclamide, metformin, and insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Effect of glyburide vs subcutaneous insulin on perinatal complications among women with gestational diabetes: a randomized clinical trial.

Metformin compared with glyburide for the management of gestational diabetes. Glyburide versus metformin and their combination for the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled study. Reference removed during proofreading. Comparative efficacy and safety of OADs in management of GDM: network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Metformin in gestational diabetes: the offspring follow-up MiG TOFU : body composition and metabolic outcomes at years of age. Metformin use in PCOS pregnancies increases the risk of offspring overweight at 4 years of age: follow-up of two RCTs. Neonatal, infant, and childhood growth following metformin versus insulin treatment for gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

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Metformin versus placebo from first trimester to delivery in polycystic ovary syndrome: a randomized, controlled multicenter study. Clomiphene, metformin, or both for infertility in the polycystic ovary syndrome. Prospective parallel randomized, double-blind, double-dummy controlled clinical trial comparing clomiphene citrate and metformin as the first-line treatment for ovulation induction in nonobese anovulatory women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Metformin administration versus laparoscopic ovarian diathermy in clomiphene citrate-resistant women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a prospective parallel randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. A cautionary response to SMFM statement: pharmacological treatment of gestational diabetes.

Metformin for gestational diabetes mellitus: progeny, perspective, and a personalized approach. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections of insulin for pregnant women with diabetes.

Transfer of insulin lispro across the human placenta: in vitro perfusion studies. Evaluation of insulin antibodies and placental transfer of insulin aspart in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Different insulin types and regimens for pregnant women with pre-existing diabetes.

Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus intensive conventional insulin therapy in type I and type II diabetic pregnancy. Fetal growth in women managed with insulin pump therapy compared to conventional insulin.

A glycated hemoglobin A1C can be performed in patients in whom obtaining a fasting specimen is especially inconvenient but performs less well for diagnosis of diabetes or prediabetes in postpartum patients because of increased peripartum red cell turnover [ ].

See "Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and initial evaluation of diabetes mellitus in adults", section on 'Diagnostic tests'. They should have yearly assessment of glycemic status. Approaches to prevention of type 2 diabetes are reviewed in detail separately.

See "Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and initial evaluation of diabetes mellitus in adults", section on 'Prediabetes' and "Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus".

Higher intensity and longer duration of breastfeeding during the first two years postpartum is associated with a reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes in observational studies.

See "Gestational diabetes mellitus: Obstetric issues and management", section on 'Breastfeeding'. They should also be given advice regarding contraception and the planning of future pregnancies, especially the importance of good glycemic management prior to conception.

See "Overview of general medical care in nonpregnant adults with diabetes mellitus" and "Pregestational preexisting diabetes: Preconception counseling, evaluation, and management".

See 'Recurrence' above and 'Long-term risk' above. Lifestyle interventions are beneficial for reducing the incidence of type 2 diabetes in persons with prediabetes [ ] and these interventions diet and exercise, achieving a normal body mass index, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol intake also appear to be beneficial in patients with a history of GDM, whether or not they meet criteria for prediabetes [ ].

The annual incidence of diabetes may be reduced by 30 to 50 percent or more compared with no intervention [ , ]. Pharmacotherapy eg, metformin , pioglitazone may also have a role in preventing future type 2 diabetes. In a multicenter randomized trial, both intensive lifestyle and metformin therapy reduced the incidence of future diabetes by approximately 50 percent compared with placebo in patients with a history of GDM; metformin was much more effective than lifestyle intervention in parous patients with previous GDM [ ].

This topic is discussed in detail separately. See "Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus". Reassessment of glycemic status should be undertaken at a minimum of every three years eg, every one to three years [ 24 ].

More frequent assessment may be important in patients who may become pregnant again, since early detection of diabetes is important to preconception and early prenatal care.

More frequent screening every one or two years may also be indicated in patients with other risk factors for diabetes, such as family history of diabetes, obesity, and need for pharmacotherapy during pregnancy. The best means of follow-up testing has not been defined.

The two-hour 75 g oral GTT is the more sensitive test for diagnosis of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in most populations, but the fasting plasma glucose is more convenient, specific, and reproducible, and less expensive. A1C is convenient and the preferred test for patients who have not fasted overnight.

See "Screening for type 2 diabetes mellitus", section on 'Screening tests'. See "Overview of primary prevention of cardiovascular disease". Follow-up of patients not screened for GDM — For patients who did not undergo screening for GDM, but diabetes is suspected postpartum because of newborn outcome eg, hypoglycemia, macrosomia, congenital anomalies , a postpartum GTT may be considered.

A normal postpartum GTT excludes the presence of type 1 or type 2 diabetes or prediabetes; it does not exclude the possibility of GDM during pregnancy and the future risks associated with this diagnosis. Indications for screening and tests used for screening are discussed separately.

See "Screening for type 2 diabetes mellitus". SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS — Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around the world are provided separately. See "Society guideline links: Diabetes mellitus in pregnancy". These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials.

Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient info" and the keyword s of interest.

We suggest glucose self-monitoring before breakfast and at one or at two hours after the beginning of each meal. See 'Glucose monitoring' above. See 'Can the frequency of self-monitoring be reduced? Moderate exercise also improves glycemic control and should be part of the treatment plan for patients with no medical or obstetric contraindications to this level of physical activity.

See 'Rationale for treatment' above and 'Exercise' above. Calories are generally divided over three meals and two to four snacks per day and are composed of approximately 40 percent carbohydrate, 20 percent protein, and 40 percent fat.

Gestational weight gain recommendations are shown in the table table 1. See 'Medical nutritional therapy' above.

Pharmacotherapy can reduce the occurrence of macrosomia and large for gestational age in newborns. See 'Indications for pharmacotherapy' above. We start with the simplest insulin regimen likely to be effective based on the glucose levels recorded in the patient's blood glucose log and increase the complexity as needed.

An alternative approach based on both patient weight and glucose levels is somewhat more complex and likely most appropriate for individuals whose glucose levels are not well managed with simpler paradigms. See 'Insulin' above. The long-term effects of transplacental passage of noninsulin antihyperglycemic agents are not known.

See 'Oral hypoglycemic agents' above. Testing can be performed while the patient is still in the hospital after giving birth. Otherwise it is performed 4 to 12 weeks postpartum and, if results are normal, at least every three years thereafter.

See 'Maternal prognosis' above. Why UpToDate? Product Editorial Subscription Options Subscribe Sign in. Learn how UpToDate can help you. Select the option that best describes you. View Topic. Font Size Small Normal Large. Gestational diabetes mellitus: Glucose management and maternal prognosis.

Formulary drug information for this topic. No drug references linked in this topic. Find in topic Formulary Print Share. View in. Language Chinese English. Author: Celeste Durnwald, MD Section Editors: David M Nathan, MD Erika F Werner, MD, MS Deputy Editor: Vanessa A Barss, MD, FACOG Contributor Disclosures.

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete. Literature review current through: Jan This topic last updated: Nov 16, There were no significant maternal or neonatal harms from treatment of GDM.

Insulin Dose — The insulin dose required to achieve target glucose levels varies among individuals, but the majority of studies have reported a total dose ranging from 0.

Follow-up Testing — Long-term follow-up for development of type 2 diabetes is routinely recommended for individuals with GDM, given their high risk for developing the disorder [ 24,43 ]. Electronic address: pubs smfm. SMFM Statement: Pharmacological treatment of gestational diabetes.

Am J Obstet Gynecol ; B2. Catalano PM, McIntyre HD, Cruickshank JK, et al. The hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome study: associations of GDM and obesity with pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Care ; Crowther CA, Hiller JE, Moss JR, et al.

Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med ; HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group, Metzger BE, Lowe LP, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P. Interventions for pregnant women with hyperglycaemia not meeting gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes diagnostic criteria.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev ; 1:CD Durnwald CP, Mele L, Spong CY, et al. Glycemic characteristics and neonatal outcomes of women treated for mild gestational diabetes.

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Increased fetal adiposity: a very sensitive marker of abnormal in utero development. Am J Obstet Gynecol ; Moss JR, Crowther CA, Hiller JE, et al. Costs and consequences of treatment for mild gestational diabetes mellitus - evaluation from the ACHOIS randomised trial.

BMC Pregnancy Childbirth ; US Preventive Services Task Force, Davidson KW, Barry MJ, et al. Screening for Gestational Diabetes: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA ; Pillay J, Donovan L, Guitard S, et al.

Screening for Gestational Diabetes: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Poprzeczny AJ, Louise J, Deussen AR, Dodd JM. The mediating effects of gestational diabetes on fetal growth and adiposity in women who are overweight and obese: secondary analysis of the LIMIT randomised trial.

BJOG ; Landon MB, Rice MM, Varner MW, et al. Mild gestational diabetes mellitus and long-term child health. American Diabetes Association, Bantle JP, Wylie-Rosett J, et al. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association.

Diabetes Care ; 31 Suppl 1:S Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. Hernandez TL, Brand-Miller JC. Nutrition Therapy in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Time to Move Forward.

Yamamoto JM, Kellett JE, Balsells M, et al. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Diet: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Examining the Impact of Modified Dietary Interventions on Maternal Glucose Control and Neonatal Birth Weight.

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Nutrition therapy within and beyond gestational diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract ; Feinman RD, Pogozelski WK, Astrup A, et al. Dietary carbohydrate restriction as the first approach in diabetes management: critical review and evidence base.

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Metabolic effects of hypocaloric diets in management of gestational diabetes. Type 1 diabetes often starts when a person is young. Type 2 diabetes may be prevented by losing weight. Healthy food choices and exercise can also help prevent type 2 diabetes.

Special testing and keeping track of the baby may be needed for pregnant people with diabetes, especially those who are taking insulin. This is because of the increased risk for stillbirth.

These tests may include:. Fetal movement counting. This means counting the number of movements or kicks in a certain period of time, and watching for a change in activity.

This is an imaging test that uses sound waves and a computer to create images of blood vessels, tissues, and organs. Ultrasounds are used to view internal organs as they function, and to look at blood flow through blood vessels.

Nonstress testing. Biophysical profile. This is a measure that combines tests, such as the nonstress test and ultrasound to check the baby's movements, heart rate, and amniotic fluid. Doppler flow studies. This is a type of ultrasound that uses sound waves to measure blood flow. A baby of a pregnant person with diabetes may be delivered vaginally or by cesarean section.

It will depend on your health, and how much your pregnancy care provider thinks the baby weighs. Your pregnancy care provider may advise a test called amniocentesis in the last weeks of pregnancy.

This test takes out some of the fluid from the bag of waters. Testing the fluid can tell if the baby's lungs are mature. The lungs mature more slowly in babies whose parent has diabetes. If the lungs are mature, the healthcare provider may advise induced labor or a cesarean section delivery.

Diabetes is a condition in which the body can't produce enough insulin, or it can't use it normally. Nearly all pregnant people without diabetes are screened for gestational diabetes between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. Treatment for diabetes focuses on keeping blood sugar levels in the normal range.

Follow-up testing is important. Bring someone with you to help you ask questions and remember what your provider tells you. At the visit, write down the name of a new diagnosis, and any new medicines, treatments, or tests.

Also write down any new instructions your provider gives you. Know why a new medicine or treatment is prescribed, and how it will help you. Also know what the side effects are. Know what to expect if you do not take the medicine or have the test or procedure.

If you have a follow-up appointment, write down the date, time, and purpose for that visit. Search Encyclopedia.

Diabetes During Pregnancy What is diabetes? There are 3 types of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes. What causes diabetes during pregnancy? Who is at risk for diabetes during pregnancy? The risk factors for diabetes in pregnancy depend on the type of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes often occurs in children or young adults, but it can start at any age.

Overweight people are more likely to have type 2 diabetes. What are the symptoms of diabetes during pregnancy? How is diabetes during pregnancy diagnosed?

How is diabetes during pregnancy treated?