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The correlation coefficient of chlorophylls and carotenoids was higher than others, with a phenotypic correlation of 0. Similar results were also observed for the two above-mentioned pairs for the organ correlation coefficient Table 9.

Glucosinolates and antioxidants commonly accumulate in the vegetative and reproductive organs of plants 17 , We studied the genetic effects and correlations of glucosinolates, main antioxidants and antioxidant capacity among the different organs in varieties of Chinese kale.

The results demonstrated that Chinese kale is a rich source of glucosinolates and antioxidants, but the levels in individual organs and varieties varied considerably.

Similar results have been reported in broccoli, cauliflower, kale, turnips, and Arabidopsis 12 , 14 , 17 , The glucosinolates can differ in composition and levels among the different organs of individual plants 17 , 19 , Glucoerucin was the predominant glucosinolate in both seeds and roots of rocket salad, while dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl glucosinolate was the main component in the leaves Similar results were reported by Petersen et al.

In the current study, variance analysis indicated that the plant organ played a major role in glucosinolate accumulation. The content of total glucosinolates in Chinese kale was highest in roots, and this value was at least three times as high as the value in other organs except for inflorescences.

These patterns were similar to results in other glucosinolate-containing species 17 , 19 , As glucosinolates provide a defense against herbivores and pathogens, the pattern of differences among organs in Chinese kale is consistent with theories on the optimal distribution of defense substances We found that the levels of 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, glucoerucin, and gluconasturtiin in roots were much higher than levels in other organs.

Degradation products of glucoerucin inhibited Pythium irregulare oospore germination and Rhizoctonia solani soil colonization In addition, Arabidopsis expressing the sorghum CYP79A1 or over-expressing the endogenous CYP79A2 accumulated p-hydroxybenzyl or benzyl glucosinolates, and had increased resistance to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae Therefore, the glucosinolate profiles in roots may be a defense adaptation to plant pathogens.

Inflorescences, the reproductive organ, had high concentrations of major aliphatic glucosinolates and glucobrassicin. Leaves and petioles, two important vegetative organs of Chinese kale, had low level of glucosinolate. One possible reason is that the nutrients and defense compounds are transported from vegetative organs and accumulate gradually in reproductive organs as plants develop.

The concentrations of glucosinolates in the edible bolting stems were maintained at intermediate levels Table 4. However, these levels are much higher than levels in other vegetables 12 , 18 , These results suggest that, besides the edible part, other organs of Chinese kale, especially the roots and inflorescences, could potentially be used to produce functional foods and biopesticides.

Differences in individual and total glucosinolate contents were found among different varieties of Chinese kale. Genetic variation was an important factor determining the glucosinolate profiles. This suggests that new varieties of Chinese kale with optimal contents of various types of glucosinolates could be developed.

Similar effects of genotype on the composition and content of glucosinolates have been observed in broccoli and other Brassica vegetables 2 , 12 , 14 , 18 , Some glucosinolates provide health benefits by reducing the risk of certain cancers.

For example, sulforaphane, the isothiocyanate product of glucoraphanin, is a potent inducer of mammalian detoxication and antioxidant phase 2 enzyme activities that protect against tumorgenesis Glucobrassicin is the precursor of indolecarbinol that, along with sulforaphane, is a potent anticancer compound found in Brasscia vegetables 26 , 27 , JLB, in this study, could also be used for development of a functional variety, because it is rich in anticarcigenic glucosinolates, such as glucoiberin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin.

DFZC is also a good candidate because of its high level of glucoraphanin. The correlation results indicated that the above three anticarcigenic glucosinolates could be increased simultaneously in selective breeding of Chinese kale because of their high positive correlations Table 8.

During improvement of anticarcinogenic potency, the positive sensory attributes and nutrient quality of Chinese kale must not be affected by selective breeding. For instance, 2-propenyl isothiocyanate derived from sinigrin is associated with pungency, bitterness, and lachrymatory effects.

Progoitrin can have a goitrogenic effect on animals 14 , 18 , However, the high level of positive correlations between the three anticarcinogenic glucosinolates and sinigrin and progoitrin suggest that will be difficult to enhance the anticarcinogenic qualities without deleterious side effects.

Some glucosinolates contribute to the antioxidant capability of the plant. Glucoraphasatin, which is the main glucosinolate in radish sprouts, displayed antioxidant activity and contributed to the total antioxidant capacity of radish sprout extract Glucoerucin and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin are good antioxidants because of their ability to decompose hydroperoxides and hydrogen peroxide 20 , In contrast to anticarcinogenic ability, the relationship between glucosinolates and antioxidant activity is unclear.

We analyzed the correlations between glucosinolate and antioxidant capacity Table 8 and found that glucobrassicin and sinigrin had positive phenotypic correlations with antioxidant capacity. Six glucosinolates glucoiberin, sinigrin, glucoraphanin, gluconapin, glucobrassicin, and total indole glucosinolates also had positive organ correlations with antioxidant capacity.

The results imply that these kinds of glucosinolates, especially glucobrassicin, are involved in plant antioxidant activity. Antioxidants are health-promoting phytochemicals in horticultural crops. Carotenoids, vitamin C, total phenolics, and chlorophylls have high antioxidant potential and help provide protection against many types of cancer 8 , 9 , 10 , 32 , The plant antioxidant capacity is reflected by the synergetic effect of multiple antioxidants.

Our results indicate that Chinese kale contains high amounts of main antioxidants and has high antioxidant capacity. The high positive correlations between antioxidant capacity and main antioxidants carotenoids, vitamin C, total phenolics, and chlorophylls imply that the main antioxidants tested contribute to the total antioxidant capacity in Chinese kale and that they could be improved simultaneously Table 9.

Variance analysis of genetic effects indicated that organ played a predominant role in the contents of main antioxidants and antioxidant capacity as it did in the content of glucosinolates Table 4. Therefore, it could be easier to select suitable combinations of organs and varieties for utilization of the health-promoting compounds.

Although the content of vitamin C in bolting stems was at a low levels among the organs Table 5 , the content was higher than levels in many other vegetables 24 , In conclusion, Chinese kale is a rich source of health-promoting phytochemicals, including glucosinolates and antioxidants.

The highest concentrations of individual and total glucosinolates were found in roots and inflorescences, respectively, while the highest levels of main antioxidants carotenoids, vitamin C, total phenolics, and chlorophylls and antioxidant capacity occurred in inflorescences and leaves.

The non-edible organs roots, inflorescences, and leaves have potential for other uses, such as functional foods and biopesticides. JLB and DFZC are good candidates for daily consumption and breeding programs since they had high levels of anticarcinogenic glucosinolates in the bolting stems.

The genetic effect of organ played a primary role in the accumulation of glucosinolates and antioxidants, while the interaction effects were significant for some compounds. High positive correlations between pairs of anticarcinogenic glucosinolates glucoiberin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin and main antioxidants, respectively, indicated that they could be increased simultaneously by selective breeding of Chinese kale varieties.

However, it will be difficult to reduce the bitterness that accompanies the enhancement of anticarcinogenic glucosinolates. Six varieties cv: ZHSN, SJCT, CHDR, DFZC, FZHH, and JLB of Chinese kale were selected.

Water and fertilizer were applied as necessary. The whole plants were harvested when the bolting stems with inflorescences were as tall as the apical leaves.

This indicates that the edible organ was mature. Plants with equivalent size were selected, and the harvest was conducted in early morning. The plants were placed on ice and transported to the laboratory. For each variety, five plants represented a replicate, and three independent replicates were taken for analysis.

The sampled plants were divided into five parts, namely, inflorescences, bolting stems, leaves, petioles, and roots. Parts of fresh samples were analyzed for chlorophylls, total carotenoids, and vitamin C. Other parts were frozen, lyophilized in a freeze dryer VirTis Inc.

Glucosinolates were extracted and analyzed as previously described 2. HPLC analysis of desulphoglucosinolates was conducted using a Waters HPLC instrument equipped with a Model PDA absorbance detector Waters, USA.

The procedure employed isocratic elution with 1. Chlorophyll content was analyzed as previously described Total carotenoid content was analyzed as previously described After washing several times with water, the upper phase was collected and combined as a crude extract.

Vitamin C content was analyzed as previously described Each sample was filtered through a 0. HPLC analysis of vitamin C was conducted using a Waters instrument with a Model PDA detector Waters Inc.

Antioxidant capacity was determined using the Ferric reducing antioxidant power FRAP method of Benzie and Strain The genetic model developed by Zhu 38 was used for the analysis of inheritance. The model used for the analysis is:.

The data were analyzed with TestR Model by MINQUE method for estimating variances and covariances and calculating the ratios of genetic variance over phenotypic variance. All of the data analyses were performed with QGAStation Version 2.

All of the factors were considered as random. Abellán, Á. Sorting out the value of cruciferous sprouts as sources of bioactive compounds for nutrition and health.

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Benzie, I. Zhu, J. Analytic methods for seed models with genotype × environment interactions. La Vie en Rose. Laura Secord. C Cosmetics.

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