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com — All Rights Reserved Click here for Disclaimer and Privacy Policy. In order to monitor the underlying mechanisms related to pacing behavior development, physical maturation meta- cognitive development, and the motivation of athletes should be tracked as well.

In literature, physical maturation is commonly monitored via the age at peak height velocity, as calculated using sitting height, leg length and body mass te Wierike et al. As for the meta- cognitive skills associated with pacing behavior development, core executive functions have previously been studied and monitored via a variety of tests, including well known tests such as Tower of London and Stroop task Jacobson and Matthaeus, Monitoring of self-regulatory skills in athletes could be done via questionnaires such as the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale Jonker et al.

As for the monitoring of the motivation of athletes, several questionnaires have been validated and used in research with this purpose, for example: Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport Conroy et al. In addition to monitoring the pacing behavior of athletes, it would be interesting to see how the decision-making processes involved in regulating pacing behavior could be trained.

Recent literature suggests that human-environment interactions, such as those experienced when competing against opponents, play an essential role in regulating pacing Smits et al. The emphasis placed on the human-environment interaction is analogous to contemporary frameworks of sport performance rooted in ecological dynamics Seifert and Davids, , including the constraints-led approach to skill acquisition Davids et al.

Inherent within these theoretical approaches is the idea that perception and action are causally and cyclically related Handford et al. In the context of pacing, this concept of perception-action coupling relates to the dynamic process of continuously exploring information from the human-environment interaction to produce the specific affordances or opportunities for action that may result in a change of pacing behavior Smits et al.

Such affordances are predicated by both the perceptual information provided at any given moment in the race e. Thus, because of the highly dynamic nature of sport, and subsequent human-environment interactions, the development and training of decision making can be viewed as a dynamic and non-linear process Chow et al.

From a coaching perspective, the concept of affordances is a central component of the constraints-led approach CLA to skill acquisition Davids et al. According to proponents of the CLA, it is hypothesized that specific emergent behaviors e.

Through systematically manipulating these constraints, coaches and athletes can construct highly representative learning environments to replicate the specific perceptual-motor demands required of athletes to regulate their pace during competition.

Due to the centrality of perception-action coupling within the CLA, athletes who have been repeatedly exposed to such highly representative conditions during development through practice and competition are thought to develop an adaptable repertoire of perceptual-motor behaviors e.

A practical example can be found in the preparation of athletes for the extreme environmental constraints e. Of primary concern will be accessing facilities to replicate the specific environmental conditions athletes will face during the championships. For many developmentally elite athletes, directly experiencing these exact conditions is unlikely for many financial and logistical reasons.

Consequently, many athletes will be trained in environmental chambers in which the environmental constraints can be externally controlled. While heat acclimatization procedures have been shown to improve physiological performance Chalmers et al.

That is, athletes are not exposed to opponents, and are thus less likely to recognize the specific affordances to modify their pacing presented during the dynamic human-environment interactions in extreme environmental conditions.

To combat such issues, coaches may utilize innovative methods to increase the fidelity of the practice conditions so that perception and action are more tightly coupled.

Recent advances in virtual reality offer exciting opportunities to create immersive and interactive virtual environments, potentially leading to greater decision making transfer to competition through perception action coupling Craig and Cummins, ; Stone et al.

Less expensive methods, such as projecting different competitive scenario's using life size images of opponents using video or avatars on to screens, from the athlete's perspective, may also be advantageous in enhancing perception-action coupling Savelsbergh et al.

Despite the potential of such novel training methods, the unique psycho-social environmental constraints experienced by developing athletes attending their first senior world championships is virtually impossible to recreate.

Yet, the experience will be invaluable in recognizing the specific affordances to regulate their pacing behavior in future IAAF World Championship events. Pacing vitally impacts athletic performance both during competition and over a longer period of time.

It is therefore imperative that young athletes, striving to reach the elite level, adequately develop their pacing behavior. Adolescence is characterized by major shifts in pacing behavior.

Pacing can be seen as a self-regulatory skill and the development of pacing behavior during adolescence is thought to be underpinned by physical maturation, the development of pre-frontal cortical meta- cognitive functions, as well as the increase of experience with exercise tasks.

Motivation impacts self-regulatory learning and is of importance for optimal development of pacing skills. Coaches are advised to monitor the motivation of young athletes and encourage a motivational climate in which realistic goals are set, athletes enjoy their sport, create positive relationships with coach, staff, and teammates and value long term decisions over short term success.

Monitoring and training the development of pacing behavior, by ways of a constrained led approach, could be the next step in the talent development process. The complexity of pacing behavior development, as well as its essential role in the career of elite athletes, warrants the need for further research.

Future studies are needed to establish benchmarks for pacing behavior development of elite athletes in specific athletic disciplines, as well as a further exploration of the underlying mechanisms of the development of the pacing skillset in the elite athletes of tomorrow.

SM wrote the first draft of the manuscript. DH, LS-G, ME-G, FH, and SM wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to conception and design of the work, drafted it, and revised it critically for important intellectual content. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read and approved the submitted version.

All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript, agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

All persons designated as authors qualify for authorship, and all those who qualify for authorship are listed. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Foster, C. Pattern of developing the performance template. Gibson, A. The conscious perception of the sensation of fatigue. The role of self-talk in the awareness of physiological state and physical performance. Gulbin, J. There were no differences between any of the athlete categories for the reported amount of sleep.

There were no statistically significant differences between males and females, nor cgs and non-cgs athletes. All athlete referrals to frequently used practitioners were via their State Institute, except the family GP.

Overall, IP-athletes had higher utilisation than n-IP-athletes for all services except for osteopathy. There were no differences between cgs and non-cgs athlete. Nine athletes dropped 1—2 kg below what they considered their baseline training weight, 12 athletes dropped 5 kg below baseline, 6 athletes dropped kg below baseline, and one athlete dropped 10 kg below baseline weight.

Fifteen athletes reported using a sauna to lose weight before competing. Other weight-loss strategies included running, skipping, walking, and sports specific exercise.

No differences in the prevalence of these practises were evident between; IP and non-IP; males and females, nor cgs and non-cgs athletes.

In response to the question: If they achieved a medal at a benchmark event, why, in their opinion, did they succeed compared to their less successful counterparts?

Responding to the question: What could be done better to educate and empower athletes regarding their knowledge and effective usage of athlete and lifestyle strategies etc. Additionally, making effective use of sports science and sports medicine SSSM , maximising training, and performance opportunities, were also emphasised.

As a recovery practice mentioned previously , the importance of sleep was a common theme in recommendations athletes would make to younger athletes. The prevalence of source of dietary advice was not statistically significantly different between athlete categories.

There were no other statistically significant differences in diet between IP and n-IP athletes and no statistically significant differences between the other athlete categories. There were no other statistically significant differences between athlete categories.

Psychological skills and attributes were perceived by athletes as vital to success across the range of attainment levels, with an ability to change and resilience being rated the highest.

While the importance of resilience and adaptation is well documented [ 2 ], most athletes wished they had had access to these skills earlier in their career [ 2 ]. It may therefore be suggested that an holistic psychological support program, inclusive of training in mental fortitude [ 2 ], emotional intelligence [ 11 ], mental toughness [ 12 ], and mindfulness-acceptance-commitment MAC practices could be incorporated into athlete support programs to facilitate athlete wellbeing [ 13 , 14 , 15 ].

The suggested potential value of such an inclusion would be in assisting athletes to enhance performance and embrace the pressure and expectation to perform and succeed at important benchmark events, as well as contributing to the attainment of important psychological and mental aspects of wellness.

In support of this, athlete responses indicated that pre-elite athletes desired deeper knowledge, understanding, and autonomy. Given the focus on psychological skills being perceived to be critical to performance, this receptiveness presents an opportunity to hone and develop psychological skills earlier, so that they are well-practiced by the time the athlete reaches career maturity.

Additionally, education about this service earlier in the developmental pathway may provide more targeted as well as holistic and effective use of this professional service, as indicated in the following quote:.

I wish I had asked for help sooner from professionals regarding my coping strategies and stress levels. The pressure and stress of hitting my peak in sport at a young age has permanently affected my mental and physical health…. I wish I had diversified my support network to outside of the sport itself.

All athletes perceived interpersonal relationships as vital, and valued people who made them laugh and supported them during their careers. Perceived support is understood to affect emotional and informational esteem positively and have stress-buffering effects on self-confidence and resilience [ 2 , 16 , 17 ], including performance factors [ 18 ].

Conversely, in an environment where there is pressure to perform and high stress levels, some negative relationship aspects may develop, such as controlling behaviours, accidental violence [ 19 ], non-accidental violence, maltreatment, harassment, coercion, and abuse, which are not uncommon in elite sport [ 20 , 21 ].

Hence an emphasis on a culture of personal support and respectful interpersonal relationships may not only serve to drive higher levels of performance and enhance athletes lives both within and external to the sporting arena but may also prevent potentially harmful interactions [ 4 ].

With the perceived benefit of these practises and services being indicated by numerous athletes who expressed that they would have liked access to these services earlier in sporting careers. But with hindsight they reflected that it was important to know when to move to a more specialised club or DTE.

Furthermore, the recommendations to young athletes included seeking professional assistance, such as sports psychologist, dietician and other specialists earlier, which reiterated the established athletes perceived benefits of these support services.

Within these responses, the perceived importance of an understanding of nutritional strategies and the implementation of recovery strategies was strongly reflected, particularly concerning preventing burn-out, fatigue, and injuries. In virtually all aspects of the data there were almost no statistically significant differences between AB-athletes and AwD, and the few statistical differences that were identified may be due to their disability e.

Family support was greater for AwD, perhaps indicating support for managing various disabilities. The reasons why AB athletes reported practicing more rituals than AwD, requires further investigation as the reasons for this are not overtly evident.

Again, there were very few statistically significant differences between males and females, but notably there were differences in the use of some recovery strategies and training hours leading up to and during competition.

The findings of this study indicate that athletes of state level and above perceive lifestyle factors, performance strategies, and social support as important factors in sporting success. Their responses also indicate that they would welcome the implementation of educational strategies, recovery practices, and access to service providers earlier in their athletic career.

Nevertheless, sporting institutions, coaches, support providers and athletes should be aware and informed of these potential factors, to thereby facilitate the most effective support for and development of athletes at the elite and pre-elite level. Collated data files may be accessed upon request.

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