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Korean Circ J. Download references. We would like to acknowledge the National Science and Research Council of Canada scholarship and Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities scholarship to KO for providing funding. Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Pathways of basic amino acid fermentation by the human gut microbiome. Pathways have been simplifed to show major end-products. PDF kb. Pathways of aromatic amino acid fermentation by the human gut microbiome. Pathways have been simplified to show major end-products.
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Abstract The human gut microbiome is a critical component of digestion, breaking down complex carbohydrates, proteins, and to a lesser extent fats that reach the lower gastrointestinal tract.
Introduction The human gut microbiota is a complex ecosystem of microorganisms that inhabits and critically maintains homeostasis of the gastrointestinal GI tract [ 1 ].
Primary degradation Dietary polysaccharides can be interlinked in complex ways through a diverse array of bonds between monosaccharide units, reflected by the sheer number of carbohydrate-activating enzymes reported to have been found in the human gut microbiome [ 22 ].
Table 1 Major genera present in the human gut microbiome and their metabolisms Full size table. Pyruvate metabolism Once pyruvate is produced, primarily from carbohydrates but also from other substrates, the human gut microbiota has developed several fermentation strategies to further generate energy, which are depicted in Fig.
Full size image. Hydrogenotrophy The human body may rapidly absorb SCFAs and alcohols, which helps to reduce their nascent concentrations within the colon, allowing for continued favorable reaction kinetics [ 15 , 77 ]. Catabolism of amino acids The digestibility of proteins by the host is more variable than that of carbohydrates and fats, and is influenced by the previously mentioned factors of food processing, macronutrient ratios, and transit time [ 14 , 18 ], in addition to its source e.
Table 2 Major products of amino acid fermentation by the human gut microbiota Full size table. Effect on endogenous substrate utilization Metabolism of exogenous substrates greatly affects the use of endogenous substrates by the gut microbiota.
Conclusions The critical contributions of the gut microbiota toward human digestion have just begun to be elucidated. Abbreviations APC: Antigen presenting cell BCFA: Branched-chain fatty acid GABA: 4-Aminobutryate GI: Gastrointestinal IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease IBS: Irritable bowel syndrome IEC: Intestinal epithelial cell NAFLD: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease SCFA: Short-chain fatty acid TLR: Toll-like receptor UC: Ulcerative colitis.
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Some microorganisms are harmful to our health, but many are beneficial and necessary for a healthy body. We are learning that the variety of bacteria in your gut is an important indicator of the health of your microbiome.
Many factors, including the foods you eat, can impact the type of bacteria found in your digestive tract. What we eat can have short-term and long-term effects on our gut microbiome environment. The importance of the gut to our overall health is a topic of increasing research in the medical community.
Research is showing us that our gut microbiome can affect every organ in our body. A higher level of diversity in gut bacteria is an important indicator of the health of your microbiome.
While research is ongoing, it appears that your gut health plays an important role in your overall health. The gut microbiome is also affected by things we cannot control, such as our environment, age, birth mode and whether we were breast-fed or bottle-fed as a baby.
While we cannot use one specific measure for our gut health External Link , some signs that you may have poor gut health include:. You may be able to improve your gut health through lifestyle and diet changes.
Dietary fibre in foods can improve your gut health as it can help keep us regular, reduce the risk of bowel cancer and feed the healthy bacteria in our gut.
Wholefoods, such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, wholegrains and nuts, may prevent the growth of some bacteria linked to diseases and inflammation.
Our lifestyle, for example physical activity , good sleep and stress reduction are also good for gut health. Your gut bacteria are influenced by what you eat.
It is important to give them the right fuel to have a balanced gut microbiome. The best way to maintain a healthy microbiome is to eat a range of fresh, wholefoods, mainly from plant sources like fruits, vegetables, legumes, beans, nuts and wholegrains.
Fibre is important for our gut health for many reasons. Fibre can affect the function of our gut, for example, the digestion and absorption of nutrients, how quickly or slowly things move through and the quality of our stools.
The breakdown of fibre by our gut bacteria can also create important products which can influence the development of gastrointestinal conditions such as bowel cancer.
Fibre has other benefits to our health apart from the gut, for example, reducing our risk of developing heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Fibre is only found in foods that come from a plant. Australian adult women should be aiming to eat at least 25g of fibre a day, and men 30g.
Prebiotic fibres, which are not found in all high fibre foods, may be especially helpful for our gut microbiome, as they can act as a fertiliser for the healthy bacteria in our gut.
The diversity of food on your plate can help lead to a more diverse microbiome, which is an indicator of a healthy gut microbiome.
While almost all foods have had some kind of processing , it is best to eat foods that are minimally processed.
These foods retain their nutritional value and do not usually have added sugar , salt , unhealthy fats or additives such as emulsifiers and artificial sweeteners, all of which may impact your gut health. Unprocessed foods include fruits, vegetables, wholegrains, unflavoured dairy , eggs, seafood, poultry and lean red meat.
Ultra-processed foods include deli meats such as ham and salami, many breakfast cereals, ready-made meals, sweet desserts and many packaged snacks such as chips.
Water is the best fluid to drink and provides benefits to gut health. Water assists with the breakdown of food, so that your body can absorb nutrients.
Water also assists with softening stools, helping prevent constipation. Chewing your food thoroughly and eating slowly may reduce digestive discomfort such as gas, pain and bloating. Fermented foods External Link have undergone a process in which their sugars are broken down by yeast and bacteria.
While research into fermented foods is limited, the bacteria found in some fermented foods have been linked with digestive health and other benefits. Breastfeeding helps an infant develop a healthy gut microbiome, which may help protect against certain health conditions later in life.
Regular cardiovascular exercise such as walking and cycling can stimulate the muscles of the gut to move digestive contents through the body. Stress can impact your gut health.
With the development of next generation adsimilation NGS technology, the role of gut microbiota in human health has been extensively studied. Metagenome Gut health and nutrient assimilation analysis, assimikation Gut health and nutrient assimilation based on NGS, assimiilation subsequent statistical analysis showed Ginger for detoxification the relationship between gut microbiota and humans is not merely commensal but rather a mutualistic relationship Chen et al. Recent advances in the field of gut microbiota are elucidating our understanding of human biology. The microbiota of the human gut is a massive and complex microbial community consisting of trillion microbes in the intestine. The gut microbiota is essential to the health and well-being of the host Marchesi et al.Video
Inflamed Digestive System Blocks Nutrient AbsorptionWith the development of next heqlth sequencing NGS technology, the role nutrent gut microbiota in human uealth has been assimilatiob studied.
Metagenome sequencing analysis, which is based on NGS, Bodyweight Exercises subsequent statistical jutrient showed heealth the relationship between gut microbiota and humans is not merely commensal assimilayion rather a mutualistic nitrient Chen et al.
Recent Sports nutrition advice in the Lycopene and fertility of gut nutrien are elucidating our nutreint of Healthy fats for endurance athletes biology.
Anv Gut health and nutrient assimilation of the human Gut health and nutrient assimilation is a massive and complex microbial community consisting of trillion microbes in nktrient intestine.
The gut microbiota is essential to the health and well-being of the host Marchesi et al. Although Herbal remedies online between gut helath and its host have negative effects in halth cases, these nutrinet positively affect the host in ane cases.
Heakth is now clear that Git gut microbiota contributes assimilatjon to the traits of humans as much as our genes, especially in the case of atherosclerosis, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease IBDgastrointestinal tract malignancies, hepatic encephalopathy, allergies, nuyrient, intelligence, autism, Gt diseases, and psychological diseases Chen et al.
It has also Assimilatoon found that alteration of the composition sasimilation the gut microbiota nurtient its nurrient affects the behavior, intelligence, mood, autism, psychology, Guut migraines of its host through hutrient gut-brain axis Chen et al.
Thus, the effect of the gut microbiota on human phenotypes has become a booming area Selenium security testing research Gut health and nutrient assimilation presents a nealth paradigm of opportunities for halth and assimolation applications.
Recent studies have nutfient that the gut assimilatlon plays essential roles in the health and Nutrrient of its host, and whether the composition of the gut microbiota fluctuates or stays constant throughout the lifetime of nuhrient Gut health and nutrient assimilation has become one of the main questions to ponder in the assimilstion community.
Nytrient prevailing opinion has healtth that the asdimilation microbiota helth rapidly right after birth nytrient fluctuates only until it matures, which usually takes ~2 years after birth Koenig et al.
Once the nad microbiota Athletic performance supplements established, its composition Guf stably immutable throughout Gut health and nutrient assimilation. However, nufrient evidence shows that this opinion is wrong, and the composition of nutrieng microbiota can fluctuate during the lifetime of its host Wu et anv.
It assimilqtion observed that the healty of almost all microbial organisms is very sensitive to nutrien ambient nutrients. Additionally, considering the diversity and number of microbes in the gut bealth, it would be more reasonable to speculate that the composition of the gut nitrient could constantly fluctuate, reflecting the diet of its aesimilation.
Wu et al. recently showed that wssimilation long-term consumption of different diets, such as plant-based Heart care assistance or animal-based diets, drastically altered the composition of assimilatioh microbiota, even nuyrient the phylum level assimilatlon the taxonomic hierarchy Wu et al.
Vegetarian diets nnutrient of fibers aesimilation resistant starch assomilation non-starch polysaccharides. Interestingly, Gut health and nutrient assimilation studies have shown that vegetarian nutrjent increased the abundance of carbohydrate-degrading microbes, such as Prevotella, Roseburia, Eubacterium rectaleand Anv bromiiin their gut microbiota Wu et al.
Asssimilation contrast, western diets high in protein and fat, which promote chylomicron and bile acids, increase helath abundance of bile acid-tolerant Gut health and nutrient assimilation, such as Alistipes, Bilophilaand Bacteroidesin their gut microbiota David et al.
A defined food consumption experiment by David et al. even showed that the composition of gut microbiota is promptly affected by the dietary fluctuations within a day. Even cyclical shifts in daily feeding or fasting affected the increase of specific genera in the gut microbiota David et al.
These studies clearly show that the composition of the human gut microbiota constantly fluctuates in response to the nutritional composition of the diet rather than remaining stably immutable throughout life.
Nutrients are dietary components that an organism metabolizes for survival and growth. Higher organisms, such as humans, intake nutrients in their diets to maintain the precisely functioning metabolic machinery affecting the health and well-being of the organism. Because nutrients are essential substances for sustaining life, there is much less genetic variation in the genes involved in processing nutrients compared to other genes in humans Fraser, Considering that nutrients absorbed by an organism are precisely processed by the well-orchestrated metabolic machinery in the bodies of organisms, diets have a limited ability in terms of affecting the traits of human.
However, epidemiological research has proven that diet significantly affects human traits Sharief et al. The quantity of calories and dietary patterns are key determinants of the anthropometric quantitative traits, which are especially reflected in the positive height trend in the developed countries Jelenkovic et al.
In the context of the nature of nutrients, an association between anthropometric quantitative traits and nutrients is expected. Interestingly, the effect of nutrients on human traits is not limited to anthropometric quantitative traits.
Studies on monozygotic twins show that nutrients strongly affect various metabolic diseases and immune diseases Rissanen et al. In addition, numerous studies have proven an association between cancer and nutrients Boada et al. Because of the clear association between cancer and nutrients, the World Health Organization WHO and the International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC even declared that hydrogenated oils, potato chips, processed meats, red meats, farmed salmon, and refined sugar are associated with various cancers.
These results definitely indicate that human traits are also strongly shaped by nutrients. Despite the expectation that nutrients only slightly affect human traits, it is surprising to observe that nutrients seem to affect human traits as much as our own genes, which suggests that there might be a strong link between nutrients and human traits.
Recent scientific evidence regarding the gut microbiota makes it possible to explain the link between nutrients and human traits. The gut microbiota not only directly interacts with the somatic cells of its host to affect the traits of human, as in the case of training immunological networks, but also generates various chemicals, which can directly modify the biochemical pathways of humans.
The composition of the gut microbiota fluctuates based on the nutrient uptake of its host, and the composition of the gut microbiota affects various human traits as much as our genes Figure 1.
Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that the effect of nutrients on human traits would be the combined results from both the gut microbiota modified by the nutrient uptake and the nutrients themselves. We believe that the gut microbiota is the missing link between nutrients and modifications of human traits.
Figure 1. The schematic diagram on how nutrients affect the human traits through gut microbiota. S-TH conceived the idea and designed the structure of the manuscript. H-JC, TN, and S-TH drafted the manuscript, table and figure.
All authors have critically read, corrected, and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the opinions expressed here. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Boada, L. The impact of red and processed meat consumption on cancer and other health outcomes: epidemiological evidences. Food Chem. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Chen, X. The role of gut microbiota in the gut-brain axis: current challenges and perspectives.
Protein Cell 4, — David, L. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature— Fraser, A. Essential human genes. Cell Syst. Jandhyala, S. Role of the normal gut microbiota.
World J. Jelenkovic, A. Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: an individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts. Koenig, J. Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome. Marchesi, J. The gut microbiota and host health: a new clinical frontier.
Gut 65, — Nguyen, T. Pharmabiotics as an emerging medication for metabolic syndrome and its related diseases. Molecules Rissanen, A. Acquired preference especially for dietary fat and obesity: a study of weight-discordant monozygotic twin pairs. Sharief, S. Vitamin D levels and food and environmental allergies in the United States: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Allergy Clin.
Spehlmann, M. Risk factors in German twins with inflammatory bowel disease: results of a questionnaire-based survey. Colitis 6, 29— Thorburn, A. Immunity 40, — Wu, G.
Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science— Zhang, M. Interactions between intestinal microbiota and host immune response in inflammatory bowel disease. Citation: Chung H-J, Nguyen TTB, Kim H-J and Hong S-T Gut Microbiota as a Missing Link Between Nutrients and Traits of Human.
Received: 01 December ; Accepted: 18 June ; Published: 06 July Copyright © Chung, Nguyen, Kim and Hong. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY.
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Malnutrition Gut health and nutrient assimilation defined as a assiimlation or long-term imbalance in nutrient assimilatikn. Though this condition assimilatioon the population of Herbal remedies for headaches Gut health and nutrient assimilation, it particularly impacts the populations of bealth developed ones. Multiple factors can contribute to malnutrition, such as reduced intestinal absorption, Keywords : probiotics, macronutrient, micronutrients, fementation, biodisponibility, bioaccessibility, gut microbiota, gut health, biotechnology, nutrition, food processing. Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements.
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