There are endless snack choices that can top off your energy stores without leaving you feeling too full or sluggish. The ideal snack is balanced, providing a good ratio of macronutrients, but easy to prepare.

When snacking before a workout, focus on lower fat options , as they tend to digest more quickly and are likely to leave you feeling less full.

After exercise, a snack that provides a good dose of protein and carbs is especially important for replenishing glycogen stores and supporting muscle protein synthesis.

They help provide an appropriate balance of energy, nutrients, and other bioactive compounds in food that are not often found in supplement form. That said, considering that athletes often have greater nutritional needs than the general population, supplementation can be used to fill in any gaps in the diet.

Protein powders are isolated forms of various proteins, such as whey, egg white, pea, brown rice, and soy. Protein powders typically contain 10—25 g of protein per scoop, making it easy and convenient to consume a solid dose of protein.

Research suggests that consuming a protein supplement around training can help promote recovery and aid in increases in lean body mass.

For example, some people choose to add protein powder to their oats to boost their protein content a bit. Carb supplements may help sustain your energy levels, particularly if you engage in endurance sports lasting longer than 1 hour.

These concentrated forms of carbs usually provide about 25 g of simple carbs per serving, and some include add-ins such as caffeine or vitamins. They come in gel or powder form. Many long-distance endurance athletes will aim to consume 1 carb energy gel containing 25 g of carbs every 30—45 minutes during an exercise session longer than 1 hour.

Sports drinks also often contain enough carbs to maintain energy levels, but some athletes prefer gels to prevent excessive fluid intake during training or events, as this may result in digestive distress.

Many athletes choose to take a high quality multivitamin that contains all the basic vitamins and minerals to make up for any potential gaps in their diet. This is likely a good idea for most people, as the potential benefits of supplementing with a multivitamin outweigh the risks.

One vitamin in particular that athletes often supplement is vitamin D, especially during winter in areas with less sun exposure.

Low vitamin D levels have been shown to potentially affect sports performance, so supplementing is often recommended. Research shows that caffeine can improve strength and endurance in a wide range of sporting activities , such as running, jumping, throwing, and weightlifting.

Many athletes choose to drink a strong cup of coffee before training to get a boost, while others turn to supplements that contain synthetic forms of caffeine, such as pre-workouts.

Whichever form you decide to use, be sure to start out with a small amount. You can gradually increase your dose as long as your body tolerates it. Supplementing with omega-3 fats such as fish oil may improve sports performance and recovery from intense exercise.

You can certainly get omega-3s from your diet by eating foods such as fatty fish, flax and chia seeds, nuts, and soybeans. Plant-based omega-3 supplements are also available for those who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet.

Creatine is a compound your body produces from amino acids. It aids in energy production during short, high intensity activities.

Supplementing daily with 5 g of creatine monohydrate — the most common form — has been shown to improve power and strength output during resistance training, which can carry over to sports performance. Most sporting federations do not classify creatine as a banned substance, as its effects are modest compared with those of other compounds.

Considering their low cost and wide availability and the extensive research behind them, creatine supplements may be worthwhile for some athletes. Beta-alanine is another amino acid-based compound found in animal products such as beef and chicken. In your body, beta-alanine serves as a building block for carnosine, a compound responsible for helping to reduce the acidic environment within working muscles during high intensity exercise.

The most notable benefit of supplementing with beta-alanine is improvement in performance in high intensity exercises lasting 1—10 minutes. The commonly recommended research -based dosages range from 3. Some people prefer to stick to the lower end of the range to avoid a potential side effect called paraesthesia , a tingling sensation in the extremities.

Sports nutritionists are responsible for implementing science-based nutrition protocols for athletes and staying on top of the latest research. At the highest level, sports nutrition programs are traditionally overseen and administered by registered dietitians specializing in this area.

These professionals serve to educate athletes on all aspects of nutrition related to sports performance, including taking in the right amount of food, nutrients, hydration, and supplementation when needed.

Lastly, sports nutritionists often work with athletes to address food allergies , intolerances , nutrition-related medical concerns, and — in collaboration with psychotherapists — any eating disorders or disordered eating that athletes may be experiencing. One of the roles of sports nutritionists is to help debunk these myths and provide athletes with accurate information.

Here are three of the top sports nutrition myths — and what the facts really say. While protein intake is an important factor in gaining muscle, simply supplementing with protein will not cause any significant muscle gains.

To promote notable changes in muscle size, you need to regularly perform resistance training for an extended period of time while making sure your diet is on point.

Even then, depending on a number of factors, including genetics, sex, and body size, you will likely not look bulky.

Another common myth in sports nutrition is that eating close to bedtime will cause additional fat gain. Many metabolic processes take place during sleep.

For example, eating two slices of pizza before bed is much more likely to result in fat gain than eating a cup of cottage cheese or Greek yogurt. Coffee gets a bad rap for being dehydrating.

While sports nutrition is quite individualized, some general areas are important for most athletes. Choosing the right foods, zeroing in your macros, optimizing meal timing, ensuring good hydration, and selecting appropriate snacks can help you perform at your best.

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It has several benefits for health. A Quiz for Teens Are You a Workaholic? How Well Do You Sleep? Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. In a three-trial study, Stokes and colleagues examined the performance benefits of ingesting a CHO-E solution and a CHO-E solution with caffeine in comparison with a placebo solution during a rugby performance test [ 35 ].

They reported that there were no significant differences in the results of the performance tests, which were embedded in their shuttle-running protocol. Seven young team games players five boys and two girls: average age of However, it would be unwise to extrapolate the results of this study to adolescents per se because the participants were an uneven number of boys and girls [ 55 ].

Foskett and colleagues addressed the question of whether or not ingesting a CHO-E solution during prolonged, intermittent high-intensity shuttle running has performance benefits for games players when their muscle glycogen stores were well stocked before exercise [ 56 ].

To test this hypothesis, six university-level soccer players completed six blocks of the LIST 90 min and then consumed a high-carbohydrate diet for 48 h before repeating the LIST to fatigue.

During subsequent performance of the LIST, they ingested either a 6. The total exercise time during the CHO-E trial was significantly longer min than during the placebo trial min [ 56 ].

There was no evidence of glycogen sparing and yet during the CHO-E trial the soccer players ran for an additional 27 min beyond their performance time during the placebo trial.

While only speculative, the greater endurance may have been a consequence of higher blood glucose levels that did not compromise the supply of glucose to the central nervous system as early as in the placebo trial, thus delaying an inhibition of motor drive as glycogen stores became ever lower [ 57 , 58 ].

There is some evidence that gastric emptying of a CHO-E solution is slower while performing brief periods of high-intensity cycling than during lower intensity exercise [ 59 ].

To examine whether or not the same slowing of gastric emptying occurs during variable-speed running, Leiper and colleagues completed two studies in which games players ingested CHO-E solutions before and during exercise [ 60 , 61 ].

The same gastric emptying and timing was repeated while the soccer players performed two min periods of walking with the same min rest between the two activity periods. Gastric emptying was slower during the first min period than during the walking-only trial, but during the second 15 min of the soccer game there was no statistical difference in the emptying rate.

In total, the volume of fluid emptied from the stomach was less than during the same period while walking [ 60 ]. In the second running study, gastric emptying of a 6. The exercise intensities during the two min activity cycles of the LIST were higher and more closely controlled than those self-selected exercise intensities achieved during the five-a-side soccer game.

Nevertheless, the results were quite similar in that gastric emptying was slower during the first 15 min of exercise both for the CHO-E and the placebo solutions than while walking for the same period.

However, during the second 15 min, gastric emptying of both solutions was similar during both the running and the walking trials with a trend for slightly faster emptying rates [ 61 ]. Whether or not this greater gastric emptying later in exercise suggests an acute adaptation to coping with large gastric volumes remains to be determined.

Even with an intensity-induced reduction in gastric emptying, the available evidence does not suggest that team sport players should drink carbohydrate-free solutions. On the contrary, there is sufficient evidence to support the ingestion of CHO-E solutions during prolonged, intermittent variable-speed running to improve endurance capacity [ 24 , 52 , 55 ].

However, even recognising the benefits of ingesting CHO-E solutions during intermittent variable-speed running, young athletes appear to not meet the recommended intakes [ 8 ].

Carbohydrate gels provide a convenient means of accessing this essential fuel during prolonged running and cycling. However, there are only a few studies on the benefits of ingesting carbohydrate gels during variable-speed shuttle running.

Of the two available studies, both report that ingesting carbohydrate gels improves endurance running capacity. One of the studies reported that when games players ingested either an isotonic carbohydrate gel or an artificially sweetened orange placebo while performing the LIST protocol, their endurance capacity was greater during the gel 6.

In the second study on intermittent shuttle running, Phillips and colleagues compared the performances of games players when they ingested either a carbohydrate gel or non-carbohydrate gel before and at min intervals while completing the LIST protocol [ 63 ].

They reported that during the carbohydrate-gel trial, the games players ran longer in Part B 4. Concerns about the potential delay in gastric emptying when ingesting carbohydrate gels before and during exercise are allayed by the performance benefits reported in the above studies.

In addition, it appears that the rate of oxidation of carbohydrate gels during min of submaximal cycling is no different to that after ingesting a Although carbohydrate-protein mixtures have mainly been considered as a means of accelerating post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis, Highton and colleagues examined their performance benefits during prolonged variable-speed shuttle running [ 65 ].

However there were no significant differences in the performance between trials. Exercise performance in the heat is generally poorer than during exercise in temperate climates.

Team sports are no exception, for example Mohr and colleagues have clearly shown that the performance of elite soccer players is significantly compromised when matches are played in the heat, i.

There are only a few studies on exercise performance during variable-speed running in hot and cooler environments. Using the same experimental design, Morris et al. The m sprint speeds of the female athletes were also significantly slower in the heat, declining with test duration, which was not the case during exercise in the cooler environment.

Again, there was a high correlation between the rates of rise of the rectal temperatures of the athletes in the heat but it was less strong during exercise at the lower ambient temperature.

In a follow-up study, Morris et al. Rectal and muscle temperatures were significantly higher at the point of fatigue after exercising in the heat.

Analyses of muscle biopsy samples taken from eight sportsmen before and after completing the LIST protocol under the two environmental conditions showed that the rate of glycogenolysis was greater in seven of the eight men in the heat.

However, glycogen levels were higher at fatigue after exercise in the heat than after exercise in the cooler environment [ 68 ]. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose levels were lower at exhaustion during exercise in the cooler environment, suggesting that reduced carbohydrate availability contributed to the onset of fatigue.

At exhaustion after exercise in the heat muscle, glycogen and blood glucose levels were significantly higher, suggesting that fatigue was largely a consequence of high body temperature rather than carbohydrate availability.

Endurance capacity during exercise in the heat is improved when sufficient fluid is ingested [ 69 ], but does drinking CHO-E solution rather than water have added performance benefits?

This question was addressed in a three-trial design in which nine male games players ingested either a flavoured-water placebo, a taste-matched placebo, or a 6. Although ingesting the CHO-E solution resulted in greater metabolic changes, there were no differences in the performances during the three trials.

While the games players were accustomed to performing prolonged variable-speed running during training and competition, they were not acclimatised to exercising in the heat.

Clarke and colleagues attempted to tease out the benefits of delaying the rise in core temperature and CHO-E ingestion on performance in the heat [ 71 ].

The four-trial design included two trials in which the soccer players were pre-cooled before the test and two trials without pre-cooling.

In each pair of trials, the soccer players ingested, at min intervals, either a 6. Performance was assessed at the end of 90 min at the self-selected speed that the soccer players predicted was sustainable for 30 min but ran for only 3 min at this speed.

Thereafter, their high-intensity exercise capacity was determined during uphill treadmill running that was designed to lead to exhaustion in about 60 s [ 72 ]. They found that pre-cooling and CHO-E solution ingestion resulted in a superior performance at the self-selected running speed than CHO-E ingestion alone.

However, CHO-E solution ingestion, with or without pre-cooling, resulted in a longer running time, albeit quite short, during high-intensity exercise test than during the placebo trials. The findings of this study provide evidence to support the conclusion that variable-speed running in hot environments is limited by the degree of hyperthermia before muscle glycogen availability becomes a significant contributor to the onset of fatigue.

Consuming carbohydrates immediately after exercise increases the repletion rate of muscle glycogen [ 73 ].

In competitive team sports, the relevant question is whether or not this nutritional strategy also returns performance during subsequent exercise. Addressing this question, Nicholas and colleagues recruited games players who performed five blocks of the LIST 75 min followed by alternate m sprints with jogging recovery to fatigue, and 22 h later they attempted to repeat their performance [ 74 ].

When this study was repeated using energy- and macro-nutrient-matched HGI and LGI carbohydrate meals during the h recovery, there were no differences in performance of the games players [ 47 ]. This is not surprising because the advantage of pre-exercise LGI carbohydrate meals is the lower plasma insulin levels that allow greater rates of fat mobilisation and oxidation, which in turn benefit low- rather than high-intensity exercise.

Clearly providing carbohydrates during recovery from exercise accelerates glycogen re-synthesis as does the degree of exercise-induced depletion [ 75 ]. It also appears that the environmental conditions may influence the rate of glycogen re-synthesis.

When nine male individuals cycled for an hour to lower muscle glycogen and then consumed carbohydrate 1. Recovery in a cool environment 7 °C does not slow the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis [ 77 ]. In contrast, local cooling of skeletal muscle, a common recovery strategy in team sport, has been reported to have either no impact on or delay glycogen re-synthesis [ 78 ].

Clearly, further research is required. It has been suggested that adding protein to carbohydrate during recovery increases the rate of glycogen re-synthesis and so improves subsequent exercise capacity. The rationale behind this suggestion was that a protein-induced increase in plasma insulin level will increase the insulinogenic response to consuming carbohydrate leading to a greater re-synthesis of muscle glycogen [ 79 ].

Although a greater rate of post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis and storage has been reported following the ingestion of a carbohydrate-protein mixture compared with a carbohydrate-matched solution, there were no differences in plasma insulin responses [ 80 ].

Nevertheless, more recent studies suggest that ingesting sufficient carbohydrate ~1. The possibility of enhancing glycogen storage after competitive soccer matches by consuming meals high in whey protein and carbohydrate has recently been explored by Gunnarsson and colleagues [ 82 ].

After the h dietary intervention, there were no differences in muscle glycogen storage between the carbohydrate-whey protein and control groups [ 82 ]. While post-exercise carbohydrate-protein mixtures may not enhance glycogen storage or enhance subsequent exercise capacity, they promote skeletal muscle protein synthesis [ 83 ].

Prolonged periods of multiple sprints drain muscle glycogen stores, leading to a decrease in power output and a reduction in the general work rate during training and competition. Adopting nutritional strategies to ensure that muscle glycogen stores are well stocked prior to training and competition helps delay fatigue.

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Above and beyond the nutritional requirements to sustain good health, the additional nutritional needs of players vary according to the demands of their sport and their playing positions within their sport. In addition, team sport players represent the full spectrum of body shapes and sizes from the large body mass of football linemen through to lean soccer players.

Ideally, nutritional support should be customised to meet the needs of the individual player to ensure that they cope with training and competition [ 1 ]. Thereafter, their performance in competition depends on a range of intrinsic characteristics, such as skills, psychology and external influences such as the quality of the opposition and environmental conditions.

For example, soccer players sprint to tackle an opponent or gain possession of the ball, dribble it before passing and then jog into position to support an attack or defence. These sprints are rarely longer than 3—4 s followed by recovery of no more than several seconds before players are in action again [ 2 ].

In addition, some team sports, such as football and rugby, involve energy-sapping whole body tackles, scrummaging and wrestling for possession of the ball. Furthermore, participation in tournaments requires players to compete more than once a day with only a few hours of recovery as is the case in, for example, field hockey and rugby sevens competitions [ 4 ].

There are several recent relevant reviews on carbohydrate and exercise [ 1 , 5 ] as well as the recommended amounts of dietary carbohydrate that supports training and competition [ 6 , 7 ]. How closely team sport athletes follow these recommendations has also been assessed [ 8 ].

The present brief review on carbohydrate intake on sport team performance is focussed largely on studies that use intermittent high-intensity running because of its relevance to the performances of team sport athletes.

Our ability to exercise at high intensity depends on the capacity of our skeletal muscles to rapidly replace the adenosine triphosphate ATP used to support all energy-demanding processes during exercise. To avoid misunderstanding about the function of these two energy systems, it is important to recognise that they work in concert not in isolation.

For example, during a sprint the high rate of ATP production is provided by anaerobic energy metabolism while the physiological functions of the heart and other organs are supported by ATP derived from ongoing aerobic metabolism.

The anaerobic production of ATP is fuelled by the degradation of the intra-muscular stores of phosphocreatine PCr and glycogen, a glucose polymer. Skeletal muscle contains about five times more PCr than ATP and it is resynthesized by ongoing aerobic metabolism. Muscle glycogen, is degraded during contraction to generate ATP rapidly, but the process is accompanied by the production of lactate and hydrogen ions for review see Girard et al.

The aerobic degradation of glycogen is a slower process than its anaerobic degradation; nevertheless it produces about 12 times more ATP ~36 mmol than its anaerobic degradation. Even more ATP is produced by the oxidation of fatty acids mmol. However, while aerobic metabolism generates more energy per unit of fuel than anaerobic metabolism, it is too slow to support the high rate of ATP turnover required during sprinting.

Nevertheless, during recovery between sprints, aerobic metabolism is responsible for the re-synthesis of PCr as well as covering the energy cost of submaximal running.

As the game progresses and the number of sprints increase, there is an even greater contribution of aerobic metabolism, especially during the lower intensity activities between sprints [ 11 , 12 ]. The more economical use of glycogen as the activity continues is largely the result of an increase in aerobic production of ATP from glycogen, glucose and fatty acids.

Traditional endurance and high-intensity interval training increase the aerobic capacity of skeletal muscles that allows fatty acid oxidation to contribute to energy metabolism at higher exercise intensities than before training.

It is now known that carbohydrate ingestion may be manipulated acutely around the training session to support the desired adaptation. For example, exercise following a low-carbohydrate diet has a marked influence on the expression of genes that promote an increase in fat metabolism [ 13 ].

Although an up-regulation of fatty acid oxidation will never cover the high demands for ATP re-synthesis required during sprints [ 14 , 15 ], the oxidation of fat will play a supporting role during periods of recovery between repeated high-intensity efforts [ 16 ]. No single bodily system that is required to support the demands of team sport activity appears to be exclusively influenced by carbohydrate ingestion.

For example, peripheral depletion of muscle glycogen in sub-cellular compartments such as the sarcoplasmic reticulum will influence the flux of calcium and impair the contractile property of the muscle [ 17 , 18 ]. However, a diminished central drive associated with exercise-induced hypoglycaemia has been speculated to be directly related to a reduced delivery of glucose as a substrate to the brain [ 19 ].

Indeed, carbohydrate feedings are associated with enhanced perceived activation and a lowered perception of effort during intermittent running in comparison to the ingestion of placebo [ 20 ]. Thus, the main benefits of following a high-carbohydrate diet and ingesting carbohydrate during exercise are the availability of substrate for central and peripheral function.

For laboratory assessments to provide insight into the influence of dietary interventions on exercise performance, they should reproduce the demands of team sports that include acceleration, deceleration, as well as running at a range of speeds.

This has typically been achieved by using intermittent, variable-speed shuttle running over a distance of 20 m [ 21 , 22 ]. One such method is the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Running Test LIST that was designed to simulate the activity pattern characteristic of soccer and other stop-start sports [ 23 ].

Part A consists of five min blocks of activity with a 3-min recovery between each block. Times for 15 m of the m sprint are recorded using photo-electric timing gates. The physiological responses and distances covered during the min LIST compare well with those recorded for professional soccer matches.

This generic protocol provides an assessment of endurance running capacity during variable-speed running and also sprint performance. The protocol has been modified and adapted to include assessment of sport-specific fitness and in some cases sport-specific skills.

This protocol also included measures of jumping ability and mental function. Afman and colleagues also adopted a modified version of the LIST to study the effects of nutritional interventions on basketball-specific skills as well as performance [ 26 ].

Rugby is a stop-and-go sport that includes set-piece contact of opposing players in the form of scrums as well as whole-body tackling.

Roberts and colleagues have validated a performance test that is based on the LIST protocol and includes simulated scrummaging and tackling [ 27 ]. It is important to acknowledge that in these studies the exercise intensity is prescribed with only the sprint speeds being self-selected, whereas in competitive games the players pace themselves.

In this modification, games players complete four min blocks of the standard LIST protocol during which the intensity of the cycle of activities of the first two blocks were dictated by an audible computer-generated bleep whereas during the last two 15 blocks the exercise intensities of the activity cycle were self-selected.

This modification was introduced to improve the ecological validity of the protocol [ 29 ]. The LIST protocol and its modifications is essentially a method of assessing both endurance capacity time to fatigue and performance sprint times of games players after a prolonged period of intermittent variable-speed running.

However, it is not skill specific to any one stop-start sport. Recent studies have adopted and modified the LIST protocol to evaluate the performance benefits of nutritional interventions on sports-specific skills, as well as performance [ 30 — 35 ].

In the development of the Copenhagen Soccer Test, Bangsbo and colleagues included a full range of soccer-related activities in addition to the assessment of running performance [ 34 ]. More relevant to the current review is that they showed that completion of 60 min of the Copenhagen Soccer Test reduces muscle glycogen levels to similar values as those recorded during competitive soccer matches.

It should be noted that the loss of glycogen during intermittent variable running is not even across both type 1 and type 2 fibres [ 34 , 36 ].

Early studies of work rates during soccer matches revealed the link between muscle glycogen stores and activity patterns of players: those players with low pre-match glycogen levels covered less ground than those with high values [ 37 , 38 ].

Therefore, it is not surprising that team sport players are encouraged to restock their carbohydrate stores before competition as well as during recovery between training sessions [ 6 ]. A well-established method of restocking carbohydrate stores involves reducing training loads whilst in parallel increasing the amount of carbohydrate in the diet [ 39 ].

Although there are several seminal running and cycling studies that show the benefits of undertaking exercise with well-stocked glycogen stores, there are fewer studies on the performance advantages in stop-start team sports. Balsom and colleagues showed the positive impact of carbohydrate loading on the performance of multiple cycling sprints [ 11 ].

They extended their study to examine the influence of carbohydrate loading on the performances of six soccer players during a min four-a-side soccer match [ 40 ]. Muscle glycogen levels were lowered 48 h earlier when players completed a variable-speed shuttle-running test. There was no difference between the performances of technical skills during the four-a-side matches following the two dietary preparations [ 40 ].

It is important to note that movement patterns during competitive team games have a high day-to-day variability [ 41 ]. The well-entrenched recommendation to eat an easy-to-digest high-carbohydrate meal about 3 h before exercise does not usually include mention of the type of carbohydrate [ 1 ].

Nevertheless, it is assumed that they are high-glycaemic index HGI carbohydrates that are digested and absorbed more quickly than low-glycaemic LGI index carbohydrates.

Eating a HGI carbohydrate meal, that provided 2. This relatively modest increase in muscle glycogen is a consequence of the early removal of systemic glucose by the liver and 3 h is insufficient for the digestion and absorption of the carbohydrate meal.

In contrast, when an energy-matched LGI carbohydrate meal was consumed there was no measureable increase in muscle glycogen levels. It is reasonable to assume that the slower digestion and absorption of the high-fibre carbohydrate meal results in a delayed delivery of glucose to the systemic circulation and hence skeletal muscles [ 42 ].

During subsequent submaximal treadmill running, there was a lower rate of carbohydrate oxidation and a higher rate of fat oxidation than when runners consumed the HGI pre-exercise meal. The lower rate of carbohydrate oxidation suggests that muscle glycogen stores were used more sparingly, i.

glycogen sparing. When the endurance-running capacity of treadmill runners were compared following consuming pre-exercise HGI and LGI carbohydrate meals on separate occasions, the time to fatigue was greater following the LGI meal [ 44 ].

Consuming a LGI carbohydrate pre-exercise meal results in a smaller rise in plasma insulin level than is the case following HGI carbohydrate meals. As a consequence, the inhibition of fatty acid mobilisation is reduced, the rate of fat metabolism during subsequent exercise is increased, and so muscle glycogen is oxidised more slowly.

This more economic use of the limited glycogen stores is an advantage during prolonged submaximal exercise; however, brief periods of sprinting rely on a high rate of glycogenolysis and phosphocreatine degradation.

Therefore, as mentioned previously even a higher rate of fat metabolism, following a LGI carbohydrate meal, cannot provide ATP fast enough to support high-intensity exercise.

Therefore, it is not surprising that the few studies that compared the impact of HGI and LGI carbohydrate pre-exercise meals on performance during intermittent brief high-intensity exercise failed to show differences [ 45 — 47 ].

When considering the merits of HGI and LGI pre-exercise meals it is important to remember that to achieve the same amount of carbohydrate and energy, the LGI meal will have a greater amount of food than in the HGI meal [ 47 ]. The reason for this is that LGI carbohydrates generally have higher fibre content and so more food has to be consumed to match the amount in HGI foods.

The higher fibre content of LGI carbohydrate foods results in earlier satiation than following the consumption of HGI carbohydrate foods.

One consequence is that athletes may consume less carbohydrate when recommended to eat LGI foods and so do not sufficiently restock their glycogen stores. During high-intensity exercise, the permeability of the muscle membrane to glucose is sensitised via a multitude of signalling pathways thought to include adenosine monophosphate kinase and calcium amongst many others [ 48 ].

However, the delivery of glucose to the muscle is reliant on adequate perfusion of skeletal muscle capillaries while maintaining overall plasma glucose levels [ 49 ].

The benefits of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte CHO-E solution during endurance exercise are well established [ 50 ]. Less attention has been paid to prolonged intermittent exercise, though early speculation suggested improvements in performance would be similar [ 51 ].

In pursuit of answers to these questions, Nicholas and colleagues undertook a study in which they provided games players with either a 6. After performing 75 min of the LIST, the games players completed Part B, i. alternated m sprints with jogging recoveries to fatigue.

beyond the five blocks of the LIST, than when they ingested the placebo [ 52 ]. Davis and colleagues modified the LIST protocol to more closely resemble the activity periods in basketball. In the brief rest periods between each min block, the games players also completed a set of mental and physical tests, namely: vertical jumps, a modified hop-scotch test to assess whole body motor skill, and mental function tests, i.

Stroop colour word test as well as completing a Profile of Mood States questionnaire. They included measures of peripheral and CNS function during the basketball-related exercise protocol and found faster m sprint times, enhanced motor skills and improved mood state during the last quarter when the games players ingested the CHO-E solution [ 25 ].

In contrast to the results reported by Davis and colleagues, they found no performance benefit when their basketball players ingested 75 g of sucrose in mL of orange juice 45 min before they completed the basketball test.

However, during the fourth-quarter, sprint performance was not different from those on the placebo trial [ 26 ]. The ingestion of the large bolus of sucrose 45 min before exercise is known to cause hypoglycaemia at the onset of exercise but without a detriment to endurance-running capacity [ 54 ].

In a three-trial study, Stokes and colleagues examined the performance benefits of ingesting a CHO-E solution and a CHO-E solution with caffeine in comparison with a placebo solution during a rugby performance test [ 35 ]. They reported that there were no significant differences in the results of the performance tests, which were embedded in their shuttle-running protocol.

Seven young team games players five boys and two girls: average age of However, it would be unwise to extrapolate the results of this study to adolescents per se because the participants were an uneven number of boys and girls [ 55 ].

Foskett and colleagues addressed the question of whether or not ingesting a CHO-E solution during prolonged, intermittent high-intensity shuttle running has performance benefits for games players when their muscle glycogen stores were well stocked before exercise [ 56 ].

To test this hypothesis, six university-level soccer players completed six blocks of the LIST 90 min and then consumed a high-carbohydrate diet for 48 h before repeating the LIST to fatigue. During subsequent performance of the LIST, they ingested either a 6.

The total exercise time during the CHO-E trial was significantly longer min than during the placebo trial min [ 56 ].

There was no evidence of glycogen sparing and yet during the CHO-E trial the soccer players ran for an additional 27 min beyond their performance time during the placebo trial. While only speculative, the greater endurance may have been a consequence of higher blood glucose levels that did not compromise the supply of glucose to the central nervous system as early as in the placebo trial, thus delaying an inhibition of motor drive as glycogen stores became ever lower [ 57 , 58 ].

There is some evidence that gastric emptying of a CHO-E solution is slower while performing brief periods of high-intensity cycling than during lower intensity exercise [ 59 ]. To examine whether or not the same slowing of gastric emptying occurs during variable-speed running, Leiper and colleagues completed two studies in which games players ingested CHO-E solutions before and during exercise [ 60 , 61 ].

The same gastric emptying and timing was repeated while the soccer players performed two min periods of walking with the same min rest between the two activity periods. Gastric emptying was slower during the first min period than during the walking-only trial, but during the second 15 min of the soccer game there was no statistical difference in the emptying rate.

In total, the volume of fluid emptied from the stomach was less than during the same period while walking [ 60 ].

In the second running study, gastric emptying of a 6. The exercise intensities during the two min activity cycles of the LIST were higher and more closely controlled than those self-selected exercise intensities achieved during the five-a-side soccer game. Nevertheless, the results were quite similar in that gastric emptying was slower during the first 15 min of exercise both for the CHO-E and the placebo solutions than while walking for the same period.

However, during the second 15 min, gastric emptying of both solutions was similar during both the running and the walking trials with a trend for slightly faster emptying rates [ 61 ].

Whether or not this greater gastric emptying later in exercise suggests an acute adaptation to coping with large gastric volumes remains to be determined.

Even with an intensity-induced reduction in gastric emptying, the available evidence does not suggest that team sport players should drink carbohydrate-free solutions.

On the contrary, there is sufficient evidence to support the ingestion of CHO-E solutions during prolonged, intermittent variable-speed running to improve endurance capacity [ 24 , 52 , 55 ]. However, even recognising the benefits of ingesting CHO-E solutions during intermittent variable-speed running, young athletes appear to not meet the recommended intakes [ 8 ].

Carbohydrate gels provide a convenient means of accessing this essential fuel during prolonged running and cycling.

However, there are only a few studies on the benefits of ingesting carbohydrate gels during variable-speed shuttle running. Of the two available studies, both report that ingesting carbohydrate gels improves endurance running capacity.

One of the studies reported that when games players ingested either an isotonic carbohydrate gel or an artificially sweetened orange placebo while performing the LIST protocol, their endurance capacity was greater during the gel 6. In the second study on intermittent shuttle running, Phillips and colleagues compared the performances of games players when they ingested either a carbohydrate gel or non-carbohydrate gel before and at min intervals while completing the LIST protocol [ 63 ].

They reported that during the carbohydrate-gel trial, the games players ran longer in Part B 4. Concerns about the potential delay in gastric emptying when ingesting carbohydrate gels before and during exercise are allayed by the performance benefits reported in the above studies. In addition, it appears that the rate of oxidation of carbohydrate gels during min of submaximal cycling is no different to that after ingesting a Although carbohydrate-protein mixtures have mainly been considered as a means of accelerating post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis, Highton and colleagues examined their performance benefits during prolonged variable-speed shuttle running [ 65 ].

However there were no significant differences in the performance between trials. Exercise performance in the heat is generally poorer than during exercise in temperate climates.

Team sports are no exception, for example Mohr and colleagues have clearly shown that the performance of elite soccer players is significantly compromised when matches are played in the heat, i. There are only a few studies on exercise performance during variable-speed running in hot and cooler environments.

Using the same experimental design, Morris et al. The m sprint speeds of the female athletes were also significantly slower in the heat, declining with test duration, which was not the case during exercise in the cooler environment.

Again, there was a high correlation between the rates of rise of the rectal temperatures of the athletes in the heat but it was less strong during exercise at the lower ambient temperature. In a follow-up study, Morris et al.

Rectal and muscle temperatures were significantly higher at the point of fatigue after exercising in the heat. Analyses of muscle biopsy samples taken from eight sportsmen before and after completing the LIST protocol under the two environmental conditions showed that the rate of glycogenolysis was greater in seven of the eight men in the heat.

However, glycogen levels were higher at fatigue after exercise in the heat than after exercise in the cooler environment [ 68 ]. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose levels were lower at exhaustion during exercise in the cooler environment, suggesting that reduced carbohydrate availability contributed to the onset of fatigue.

At exhaustion after exercise in the heat muscle, glycogen and blood glucose levels were significantly higher, suggesting that fatigue was largely a consequence of high body temperature rather than carbohydrate availability.

Endurance capacity during exercise in the heat is improved when sufficient fluid is ingested [ 69 ], but does drinking CHO-E solution rather than water have added performance benefits? This question was addressed in a three-trial design in which nine male games players ingested either a flavoured-water placebo, a taste-matched placebo, or a 6.

Although ingesting the CHO-E solution resulted in greater metabolic changes, there were no differences in the performances during the three trials.

While the games players were accustomed to performing prolonged variable-speed running during training and competition, they were not acclimatised to exercising in the heat. Clarke and colleagues attempted to tease out the benefits of delaying the rise in core temperature and CHO-E ingestion on performance in the heat [ 71 ].

The four-trial design included two trials in which the soccer players were pre-cooled before the test and two trials without pre-cooling. In each pair of trials, the soccer players ingested, at min intervals, either a 6. Performance was assessed at the end of 90 min at the self-selected speed that the soccer players predicted was sustainable for 30 min but ran for only 3 min at this speed.

Thereafter, their high-intensity exercise capacity was determined during uphill treadmill running that was designed to lead to exhaustion in about 60 s [ 72 ]. They found that pre-cooling and CHO-E solution ingestion resulted in a superior performance at the self-selected running speed than CHO-E ingestion alone.

However, CHO-E solution ingestion, with or without pre-cooling, resulted in a longer running time, albeit quite short, during high-intensity exercise test than during the placebo trials.

The findings of this study provide evidence to support the conclusion that variable-speed running in hot environments is limited by the degree of hyperthermia before muscle glycogen availability becomes a significant contributor to the onset of fatigue.

Consuming carbohydrates immediately after exercise increases the repletion rate of muscle glycogen [ 73 ]. In competitive team sports, the relevant question is whether or not this nutritional strategy also returns performance during subsequent exercise.

Addressing this question, Nicholas and colleagues recruited games players who performed five blocks of the LIST 75 min followed by alternate m sprints with jogging recovery to fatigue, and 22 h later they attempted to repeat their performance [ 74 ].

When this study was repeated using energy- and macro-nutrient-matched HGI and LGI carbohydrate meals during the h recovery, there were no differences in performance of the games players [ 47 ]. This is not surprising because the advantage of pre-exercise LGI carbohydrate meals is the lower plasma insulin levels that allow greater rates of fat mobilisation and oxidation, which in turn benefit low- rather than high-intensity exercise.

Clearly providing carbohydrates during recovery from exercise accelerates glycogen re-synthesis as does the degree of exercise-induced depletion [ 75 ]. It also appears that the environmental conditions may influence the rate of glycogen re-synthesis.

When nine male individuals cycled for an hour to lower muscle glycogen and then consumed carbohydrate 1. Recovery in a cool environment 7 °C does not slow the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis [ 77 ].

In contrast, local cooling of skeletal muscle, a common recovery strategy in team sport, has been reported to have either no impact on or delay glycogen re-synthesis [ 78 ]. Clearly, further research is required. It has been suggested that adding protein to carbohydrate during recovery increases the rate of glycogen re-synthesis and so improves subsequent exercise capacity.

The rationale behind this suggestion was that a protein-induced increase in plasma insulin level will increase the insulinogenic response to consuming carbohydrate leading to a greater re-synthesis of muscle glycogen [ 79 ]. Although a greater rate of post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis and storage has been reported following the ingestion of a carbohydrate-protein mixture compared with a carbohydrate-matched solution, there were no differences in plasma insulin responses [ 80 ].

Nevertheless, more recent studies suggest that ingesting sufficient carbohydrate ~1. The possibility of enhancing glycogen storage after competitive soccer matches by consuming meals high in whey protein and carbohydrate has recently been explored by Gunnarsson and colleagues [ 82 ].

After the h dietary intervention, there were no differences in muscle glycogen storage between the carbohydrate-whey protein and control groups [ 82 ]. While post-exercise carbohydrate-protein mixtures may not enhance glycogen storage or enhance subsequent exercise capacity, they promote skeletal muscle protein synthesis [ 83 ].

Prolonged periods of multiple sprints drain muscle glycogen stores, leading to a decrease in power output and a reduction in the general work rate during training and competition. Adopting nutritional strategies to ensure that muscle glycogen stores are well stocked prior to training and competition helps delay fatigue.

Sports nutrition together with training, recovery, genetics and environmental considerations, represent key factors for achieving high performance on the sports field.

In recent years there has been an increased interest in the potential of novel dietary strategies e. periodized nutrition and dietary Keywords : Dietary Interventions, Ergogenic Aids, Dietary Supplements, Sports Performance, Intermittent Sports.

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements.

Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review. No records found. Do you want to Continue to learn? Do you want to know more about the Ian Rollo 4 min. A new article was published 1 with insights about sweat losses, and intake patterns of FC Barcelona players during different training Asker Jeukendrup 4 min.

The UEFA expert group statement on nutrition in elite football 1 has now been published. After many months of hard work, a sizeable Caroline Tarnowski 5 min. Breakfast or the last meal before competition is important and can have a significant impact on performance. Asker Jeukendrup 2 min.

In a recent publication by Liam Anderson from Liverpool John Moores University and colleagues unique insights in English Premier League Post not marked as liked 5. There's nothing like a cool pint after exercise on a warm day. But is this a good idea?

This manipulation of the timing and volume of ingestion elicited similar metabolic responses without affecting exercise performance.

However, consuming fluid in small volumes reduced the sensation of gut fullness Clarke et al. Indeed, gastric emptying of liquids is slowed during brief intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with rest or steady-state moderate exercise Leiper et al.

These products are summarized in Table 5. Among the proposed nutritional ergogenic supplements, creatine Cr is the one that has been investigated the most in relation with team sports, given that its purported ergogenic action i. enhanced recovery of the phosphocreatine power system matches the activity profilent of team sports.

Various investigations indicate that both acute and chronic Cr supplementation may contribute to improved training and competition performance in team sports e. Ahmun et al. Table 5: Sports foods and dietary supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke, However, conflicting results are not lacking in the literature Paton et al.

Beta-alanine supplementation, to increase muscle stores of the intracellular buffer carnosine, may also provide benefits and requires further study using protocols suited to team sports Derave et al.

Colostrum supplementation has conflicting reports with respect to its effects on recovery and illness Shing et al. Beetroot juice, a source of nitrate, may enhance sports performance by mechanisms including an increase in exercise economy Wylie et al.

Holway and Spriet summarized the dietary intake studies of team sport athletes published over the past 30 years. It is difficult to make broad generalizations as data are skewed to certain team sports football, basketball and volleyball with little or no contemporary information reported on others e.

cricket, rugby union, water polo, hockey. However, weighted averages for energy intake were Relative to body mass, male team sport athletes reported eating an average of 5. This is less that reported for athletes engaged in individual team sports Burke, Not surprisingly, larger athletes were reported to consume more energy and pre-season intakes were greater than in-season intakes, perhaps to accommodate the additional conditioning work incorporated into the preparatory training phase.

Some evidence suggests the dietary quality of team sport athletes is less than what is reported for athletes involved in individual sports Clark et al.

For instance, alcohol intakes of team sport athletes appear higher than other athlete groups Van Erp-Baart et al. The team culture of celebrating a win and commiserating a loss often leads to excessive consumption of alcohol during the post-game period.

Implications of such behaviour include a decrease in muscle protein synthesis Parr et al. These issues need to be considered by sports nutrition professionals consulting with team sport athletes and highlight the need for a thorough dietary review of individual player habits and the team culture.

Implementation of appropriate systems including a performance kitchen can capture the imagination of players around key nutrition principles, while enhancing team culture. Akermark C, Jacobs I, Rasmusson M, Karlsson J.

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Schneiker KT, Bishop D, Dawson B, Hackett LP: Effects of caffeine on prolonged intermittent-sprint ability in team-sport athletes. Stuart GR, Hopkins WG, Cook C, Cairns SP: Multiple effects of caffeine on simulated high-intensity team-sport performance. Paton CD, Hopkins WG, Vollebregt L: Little effect of caffeine ingestion on repeated sprints in team-sport athletes.

Bishop D, Claudius B: Effects of induced metabolic alkalosis on prolonged intermittent-sprint performance. Tan F, Polglaze T, Cox G, Dawson B, Mujika I, Clark S: Effects of induced alkalosis on simulated match performance in elite female water polo players.

Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C: Effects of chronic NaHCO 3 ingestion during interval training on changes to muscle buffer capacity, metabolism, and short-term endurance performance. Derave W, Everaert I, Beeckman S, Baguet A: Muscle carnosine metabolism and beta-alanine supplementation in relation to exercise and training.

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The subjects were able to continue running longer when fed the carbohydrate-electrolyte solution. More recently, Ali et al. The carbohydrate-electrolyte solution enabled subjects with compromised glycogen stores to better maintain skill and sprint performance than when ingesting fluid alone.

In addition to the physiological and metabolic benefits, Backhouse et al. Their results showed that perceived activation was lower without carbohydrate ingestion during the last 30 min of exercise, and this was accompanied by lowered plasma glucose concentrations.

In the carbohydrate trial, rating of perceived exertion was maintained in the last 30 min of exercise but carried on increasing in the placebo trial.

These authors concluded that carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged high-intensity exercise elicits an enhanced perceived activation profile that may impact upon task persistence and performance. Clarke et al. On a third trial, the same volume of carbohydrate-electrolyte was consumed in smaller volumes at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 min.

This manipulation of the timing and volume of ingestion elicited similar metabolic responses without affecting exercise performance. However, consuming fluid in small volumes reduced the sensation of gut fullness [ 44 ]. Nevertheless, limitations exist regarding the ability of team sport athletes to ingest fluid during match play.

Indeed, gastric emptying of liquids is slowed during brief intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with rest or steady-state moderate exercise [ 45 ], and the intensity of football match play is sufficient to slow gastric emptying [ 46 ]. Like most athletes, team sport athletes are often interested in the potential ergogenic edge that could be gained by means of special supplements.

These products are summarized in table 5. Among the proposed ergogenic supplements, creatine is the one that has been investigated the most in relation with team sports, given that its purported ergogenic action i.

enhanced recovery of the phosphocreatine power system matches the activity profile of team sports. Various investigations indicate that both acute and chronic creatine supplementation may contribute to improved training and competition performance in team sports [ 47,48,49,50,51 ]. Sports foods and supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke [24].

Caffeine ingestion has also been shown to enhance team sport performance by improving speed, power, intermittent sprint ability, jump performance and passing accuracy [ 52,53,54,55 ].

However, conflicting results are not lacking in the literature [ 56 ]. Other dietary supplements with a potential but yet unclear ergogenic effect for team sport performance include induced metabolic alkalosis via bicarbonate ingestion to reduce fatigue during competition [ 57,58 ] or to enhance adaptations to training [ 59 ].

β-Alanine supplementation, to increase muscle stores of the intracellular buffer carnosine, may also provide benefits and requires further study using protocols suited to team sports [ 60 ].

Colostrum supplementation has a conflicting literature with respect to its effects on recovery and illness [ 61 ] but includes one study in which supplementation over 8 weeks improved the sprint performance of hockey players [ 62 ].

Dietary habits of team sport athletes have not been as well studied as those of individual sport athletes. Clark et al. Total energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat intakes were significantly greater during the preseason.

In a similar investigation, Iglesias-Gutiérrez et al. Daily energy expenditure and energy intake were Another investigation on football players of various ages [ 65 ] also observed that the contribution of carbohydrate to total energy intake was lower than that recommended for athletes.

Garrido et al. All of the above suggest that well-designed nutritional education and interventions are necessary to optimize performance and promote healthy eating habits in team sport players. Sign In or Create an Account.

Search Dropdown Menu. header search search input Search input auto suggest. filter your search All Content All Journals Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. Advanced Search. Skip Nav Destination Close navigation menu Article navigation. Volume 57, Issue Suppl. Physiological Characteristics of Match Play in Team Sports.

Achieving Ideal Physique for Team Sports. Fuel for Training Adaptation, Recovery and Match Preparation. Fuel and Fluid for Match Play. Supplements and Sports Foods for Team Sports. Practical Nutrition Considerations for the Team Athlete.

Disclosure Statement. Article Navigation. Review Articles February 22 Nutrition in Team Sports Subject Area: Endocrinology , Further Areas , Nutrition and Dietetics , Public Health. Iñigo Mujika ; Iñigo Mujika. a USP Araba Sport Clinic, Vitoria-Gasteiz, and. b Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Odontology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain;.

This Site. Google Scholar. Louise M. Burke Louise M. c Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, A. Ann Nutr Metab 57 Suppl.

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Table 1 Factors related to nutrition that could produce fatigue or suboptimal performance in team sports. View large. View Large. Table 2 Risk factors and strategies to manage unwanted gain of body fat among players in team sports adapted from Burke [24]. Table 3 Fuel requirements for training and match play adapted for team players adapted from Burke and Cox [ 39 ].

Table 4 Opportunities to drink during a match play in selected team sports adapted from Burke and Hawley [32]. Table 5 Sports foods and supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke [24]. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Hawley J, Burke L: Peak Performance: Training and Nutritional Strategies for Sport.

St Leonards, Allen and Unwin, Reilly T, Thomas V: A motion analysis of work-rate in different positional roles in professional football match-play. J Hum Mov Studies ;— Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, Goodman C: Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint activities: specific to field-based team sports.

Sports Med ;— Rampinini E, Bishop D, Marcora SM, Ferrari Bravo D, Sassi R, Impellizzeri FM: Validity of simple field tests as indicators of match-related physical performance in top-level professional soccer players.

Int J Sports Med ;— Bangsbo J: The physiology of soccer: with special reference to intense intermittent exercise. Acta Physiol Scand ;— Ekblom B: Applied physiology of soccer.

Matthew D, Delextrat A: Heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and time-motion analysis of female basketball players during competition.

J Sports Sci ;— Reilly T, Borrie A: Physiology applied to field hockey. Stølen T, Chamari K, Castagna C, Wisløff U: Physiology of soccer: an update. Ziv G, Lidor R: Physical attributes, physiological characteristics, on-court performances and nutritional strategies of female and male basketball players.

Duthie G, Pyne DB, Hooper S: Applied physiology and game analysis of rugby union. Reilly T: Football; in Reilly T, Secher N, Snell P, Williams C eds : Physiology of Sports. London, Spon, , pp — Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men.

J Appl Physiol ;— Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, Prior T, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men.

Am J Clin Nutr ;— Saltin B: Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. Med Sci Sports ;— Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, Bencke J, Kjaer M, Bangsbo J: Muscle and blood metabolites during a soccer game: implications for sprint performance.

Med Sci Sports Exerc ;— Bangsbo J, Norregaard L, Thorsoe F: The effect of carbohydrate diet on intermittent exercise performance.

Balsom PD, Wood K, Olsson P, Ekblom B: Carbohydrate intake and multiple sprint sports: with special reference to football soccer. Abt G, Zhou S, Weatherby R: The effect of a high-carbohydrate diet on the skill performance of midfield soccer players after intermittent treadmill exercise.

J Sci Med Sport ;— Akermark C, Jacobs I, Rasmusson M, Karlsson J: Diet and muscle glycogen concentration in relation to physical performance in Swedish elite ice hockey players. Int J Sport Nutr ;— Zehnder M, Rico-Sanz J, Kuhne G, Boutellier U: Resynthesis of muscle glycogen after soccer specific performance examined by 13 C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy in elite players.

Eur J Appl Physiol ;— Jacobs I, Westlin N, Karlsson J, Rasmusson M, Houghton B: Muscle glycogen and diet in elite soccer players. Zehnder M, Muelli M, Buchli R, Kuehne G, Boutellier U: Further glycogen decrease during early recovery after eccentric exercise despite a high carbohydrate intake.

Eur J Nutr ;— Burke L: Field-based team sports; in Burke L ed : Practical Sports Nutrition. Champaign, Human Kinetics Publishers, , pp — Burke LM: Fuelling strategies to optimise performance — Training high or training low? Scand J Med Sci Sports ;20 Suppl 2 : 48— Baar K, McGee SL: Optimizing training adaptations by manipulating glycogen.

Eur J Sport Sci ;— Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Andersen JL, Saltin B, Pedersen BK: Skeletal muscle adaptation: training twice every second day vs training once daily.

Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA: Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, Halson SL, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, Jeacocke N, Snow RJ, Yeo WK, Burke LM: Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling.

Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH, Martin C, Philp A, Baar K, Jeukendrup AE: Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Morton JP, Croft L, Bartlett JD, Maclaren DP, Reilly T, Evans L, McArdle A, Drust B: Reduced carbohydrate availability does not modulate training-induced heat shock protein adaptations but does upregulate oxidative enzyme activity in human skeletal muscle.

Burke LM, Hawley JA: Fluid balance in team sports. Guidelines for optimal practices. Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, Shirreffs SM: Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training.

Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab ;— Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, Maughan RJ, Serratosa L, Zachwieja JJ: The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat.

Maughan RJ, Watson P, Evans GH, Broad N, Shirreffs SM: Water balance and salt losses in competitive football. Mohr M, Mujika I, Santisteban J, Randers MB, Bischof R, Solano R, Hewitt A, Zubillaga A, Peltola E, Krustrup P: Examination of fatigue patterns in elite soccer — A multi-experimental approach.

Morton and colleagues Morton et al. Further work, including a more sophisticated approach to periodizing carbohydrate availability around different training sessions, is needed.

These include inadequate fuel and fluid status; factors that can be addressed by the intake of appropriate drinks and sports products during a match.

Given the intermittent nature of team sports, they often offer frequent opportunities to ingest fluid and energy during breaks between periods, time-outs, substitutions or breaks in play see Burke, Drinking opportunities for selected team sports are summarized in Table 4.

Fluids must be consumed at sidelines; players must not leave field. Third-time breaks, time-outs, substitutions, pauses in play. Half-time break, substitutions, pauses in play. Trainers may run onto field with fluid bottles during pauses in play.

Half-time break, pauses in play drink must be taken at sideline. First to 3 sets, limited substitutions, time-outs. Sweat rates for team sport players are underpinned by the intermittent high-intensity work patterns, which are variable and unpredictable between and within team sports.

Even from match to match, the same player can experience different workloads and sweat losses due to different game demands and overall playing time. Fluid losses are also affected by variable climate and environmental conditions in which team sports are played e. outdoor vs. indoor; on sunny beach vs.

on ice and in some sports the requirement to wear protective clothing, including body pads and helmets. Garth and Burke recently reviewed fluid intake practices of athletes participating in various sporting events.

They noted that most of the available literature involves observations from football soccer games, and there is little information on practices on other team sports, such as rugby league, rugby union, cricket, basketball and beach volleyball for review, see Garth and Burke, Studies that have included a test of pre-game hydration status in conjunction with fluid balance testing found that a subset of players reported on match day with urine samples consistent with dehydration.

Overall, mean BM changes over a match ranged from ˜1 to 1. One study reported that the total volume of fluid consumed by players was not different when they were provided with sports drink and water compared with water alone. In addition, mean heart rate, perceived exertion, serum aldosterone, osmolality, sodium and cortisol responses during the test were higher when no fluid was ingested.

Nevertheless, Edwards and Noakes suggest that dehydration is only an outcome of complex physiological control operating a pacing plan and no single metabolic factor is causal of fatigue in elite soccer. The subjects were able to continue running longer when fed the carbohydrate-electrolyte solution.

Ali et al. The carbohydrate-electrolyte solution enabled subjects with compromised glycogen stores to better maintain skill and sprint performance than when ingesting fluid alone.

Linseman et al. Skating speed and puck handling performance during the game, as well as post-game skating speed were improved with ingestion of the carbohydrate-electroltye solution. Their results showed that perceived activation was lower without carbohydrate ingestion during the last 30 min of exercise, and this was accompanied by lowered plasma glucose concentrations.

In the carbohydrate trial, RPE was maintained in the last 30 minutes of exercise but carried on increasing in the PLA trial. These authors concluded that carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged high-intensity exercise elicits an enhanced perceived activation profile that may impact upon task persistence and performance.

On a third trial, the same volume of carbohydrate-electrolyte was consumed in smaller volumes at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 minutes. This manipulation of the timing and volume of ingestion elicited similar metabolic responses without affecting exercise performance.

However, consuming fluid in small volumes reduced the sensation of gut fullness Clarke et al. Indeed, gastric emptying of liquids is slowed during brief intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with rest or steady-state moderate exercise Leiper et al. These products are summarized in Table 5.

Among the proposed nutritional ergogenic supplements, creatine Cr is the one that has been investigated the most in relation with team sports, given that its purported ergogenic action i. enhanced recovery of the phosphocreatine power system matches the activity profilent of team sports.

Various investigations indicate that both acute and chronic Cr supplementation may contribute to improved training and competition performance in team sports e. Ahmun et al. Table 5: Sports foods and dietary supplements that are of likely benefit to team sport players adapted from Burke, However, conflicting results are not lacking in the literature Paton et al.

Beta-alanine supplementation, to increase muscle stores of the intracellular buffer carnosine, may also provide benefits and requires further study using protocols suited to team sports Derave et al. Colostrum supplementation has conflicting reports with respect to its effects on recovery and illness Shing et al.

Beetroot juice, a source of nitrate, may enhance sports performance by mechanisms including an increase in exercise economy Wylie et al. Holway and Spriet summarized the dietary intake studies of team sport athletes published over the past 30 years. It is difficult to make broad generalizations as data are skewed to certain team sports football, basketball and volleyball with little or no contemporary information reported on others e.

cricket, rugby union, water polo, hockey. However, weighted averages for energy intake were Relative to body mass, male team sport athletes reported eating an average of 5. This is less that reported for athletes engaged in individual team sports Burke, Not surprisingly, larger athletes were reported to consume more energy and pre-season intakes were greater than in-season intakes, perhaps to accommodate the additional conditioning work incorporated into the preparatory training phase.

Some evidence suggests the dietary quality of team sport athletes is less than what is reported for athletes involved in individual sports Clark et al.

For instance, alcohol intakes of team sport athletes appear higher than other athlete groups Van Erp-Baart et al. The team culture of celebrating a win and commiserating a loss often leads to excessive consumption of alcohol during the post-game period.

Implications of such behaviour include a decrease in muscle protein synthesis Parr et al. These issues need to be considered by sports nutrition professionals consulting with team sport athletes and highlight the need for a thorough dietary review of individual player habits and the team culture.

Implementation of appropriate systems including a performance kitchen can capture the imagination of players around key nutrition principles, while enhancing team culture.

Akermark C, Jacobs I, Rasmusson M, Karlsson J. Ali A, Williams C, Nicholas CW, Foskett A. Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, Camera DM, West DW, Broad EM, Jeacocke NA, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM, Hawley JA, Coffey VG.

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Iglesias-Gutiérrez E, García-Rovés PM, Rodríguez C, Braga S, García-Zapico P, Patterson AM. A necessary and accurate approach. Jacobs I, Westlin N, Karlsson J, Rasmusson M, Houghton B. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, Bencke J, Kjaer M, Bangsbo J. Leiper JB, Broad NP, Maughan RJ.

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Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, Goodman C. Stølen T, Chamari K, Castagna C, Wisløff U. Stuart GR, Hopkins WG, Cook C, Cairns SP. Tan F, Polglaze T, Cox G, Dawson B, Mujika I, Clark S. Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Van Erp-Baart, AMJ, Saris, W H. M, Binkhorst, RA, Vos, JA, Elvers, JWH.

Part I. Energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake. Wall BT, Morton JP, van Loon LJ. In Eur J Sport Sci. West DW, Burd NA, Coffey VG, Baker SK, Burke LM, Hawley JA, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM.

Wylie L, Mohr M, Krustup P, Jackson S, Ermidis K, Kelly J, Black M, Bailey S, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. In Eur J Appl Physiol. Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA.

Zehnder M, Muelli M, Buchli R, Kuehne G, Boutellier U. Zehnder M, Rico-Sanz J, Kuhne G, Boutellier U. Ziv G, Lidor R. Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of the Basque Country, Spain.

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