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Received: 15 December ; Accepted: 15 February ; Published: 01 March An anti-inflammatory diet should include these foods:. On the flip side are beverages and foods that reduce inflammation, and with it, chronic disease, says Dr. He notes in particular fruits and vegetables such as blueberries, apples, and leafy greens that are high in natural antioxidants and polyphenols — protective compounds found in plants.

Studies have also associated nuts with reduced markers of inflammation and a lower risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Coffee , which contains polyphenols and other anti-inflammatory compounds, may protect against inflammation, as well.

To reduce levels of inflammation, aim for an overall healthy diet. If you're looking for an eating plan that closely follows the tenets of anti-inflammatory eating, consider the Mediterranean diet , which is high in fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish, and healthy oils. In addition to lowering inflammation, a more natural, less processed diet can have noticeable effects on your physical and emotional health.

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Multiple mechanisms are thought to contribute to β-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance, and vascular complications of diabetes. They have previously been extensively reviewed and are beyond the scope of the current review We briefly refer to several key mechanisms regulating inflammation in diabetes and their translational implications.

In diabetes, hyperglycemia and elevated free fatty acids may promote inflammation by stimulating glucose utilization along with alterations in oxidative phosphorylation 3 , 4 , Such metabolic dysregulation has been shown to induce a proinflammatory trait in macrophages residing or invading the adipose tissue and other tissues including the islets and vasculature 15 — Glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity might also exert oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, which in turn elicits an inflammatory response by activating thioredoxin-interacting protein TXNIP and the NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3 NLRP3 inflammasome, which increase the release of active interleukin IL -1β 3 , 4 , 14 , 18 , Similar mechanisms have been reported in diabetic β-cells, adipose tissue, and blood vessels 18 , 20 , 22 , In type 2 diabetes, oligomers of islet amyloid polypeptide deposit in the pancreas and may trigger inflammation by stimulating the NLRP3 inflammasome and the generation of mature IL-1β Stress and inflammation may eventually lead to apoptosis and contribute to β-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis.

In addition, obesity is associated with alterations in the gut microbiome along with increased gut leakiness of bacterial wall lipopolysaccharides endotoxins that may further promote tissue inflammation 25 , Endotoxins, free fatty acids probably in conjunction with fetuin , and cholesterol induce inflammation by activating Toll-like receptor TLR pathways and, subsequently, nuclear factor-κB NF-κB -mediated release of a broad range of cytokines and chemokines including tumor necrosis factor TNF , IL-1β, IL-8, and MCP-1 that promote the accumulation of various immune cells in different tissues 17 , It has recently been reported that in obesity, alterations of the gut microbiome might stimulate not only the innate immune system but also the adaptive immune system, which might contribute to insulin resistance Adipose tissue inflammation can also be triggered by local hypoxia caused by rapid expansion of adipose tissue with insufficient vascular adaptation The renin-angiotensin system may also play a role in inflammation, insulin resistance, and vascular damage 29 — Recent data suggest that this system may have a role in islet inflammation and β-cell dysfunction, independent of its effects on glucose metabolism.

Angiotensin II has been shown to induce expression of chemokine MCP-1 and IL-6, leading to impaired mitochondrial function and insulin secretion, as well as increased β-cell apoptosis These findings shed new light on the mechanisms of inflammation in obesity and diabetes and open new venues for prevention of inflammation by modifying the proinflammatory microbiota or by using inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system.

Alternatively, it is possible to use treatments that target key molecules that regulate the inflammatory response. The current available treatments for type 2 diabetes act through diverse mechanisms to improve glycemia.

Many of these treatments also exert anti-inflammatory effects that might be mediated via their metabolic effects on hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia or by directly modulating the immune system. Part of the findings as to the effects of different medications on systemic and tissue-specific inflammation was obtained in vitro or in animal models.

Notably, in preclinical studies testing the anti-inflammatory effects of antidiabetes drugs, the drug concentrations used were much higher than those used in clinical practice; therefore, the findings should be interpreted with caution.

Below, we summarize the current data on the anti-inflammatory properties of antidiabetes medications Table 1. Currently the first-line treatment of type 2 diabetes, metformin improves diabetes control primarily by suppressing hepatic glucose production and by improving insulin sensitivity.

Its effects are thought to be mediated in part though activation of AMPK, a key regulator of cellular energy homeostasis known to exert both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects Metformin has also been shown to directly inhibit production of reactive oxygen species from complex I NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase of the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

In lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages, metformin inhibited production of the proform of IL-1β, while it boosted induction of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL Metformin has been shown to inhibit proinflammatory responses in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells 5 , Recent reports have demonstrated that metformin may attenuate oxidized LDL-induced proinflammatory responses in monocytes and macrophages and inhibit monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation In rodents, it decreased the expression of the proinflammatory and proapoptotic protein TXNIP in β-cells and hepatocytes In human studies, however, the effects of metformin on inflammation are not well established.

In the U. Diabetes Prevention Program, metformin modestly reduced C-reactive protein CRP levels in patients with impaired glucose tolerance Others found that metformin decreased the levels of several markers of endothelial dysfunction and coagulation but did not affect TNF-α or CRP In the LANCET Trial: A Trial of Long-acting Insulin Injection to Reduce C-reactive Protein in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes, metformin did not modify the levels of inflammatory biomarkers in patients with recent-onset type 2 diabetes, despite improved glycemia Of note, recent studies suggest that metformin may have beneficial effects in chronic inflammatory diseases and cancers and may extend life span independent of its effects on glucose metabolism 42 , Several clinical studies are currently assessing the effects of metformin in this context and whether these are mediated via modulation of the inflammatory state.

While these agents directly stimulate insulin secretion by the β-cell, they have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects. As an example, glyburide has been shown to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent IL-1β activation in macrophages 24 , Similarly, gliclazide also decreased the expression of inflammatory markers and endothelial dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes By contrast, in various comparative clinical trials, no significant changes in CRP were observed with sulfonylurea SU therapy, whereas significant reductions were found with the thiazolidinedione TZD pioglitazone and the glucagon-like peptide 1 GLP-1 receptor agonist GLP-1 RA exanatide 46 — In a recent week comparative study examining the effects of metformin, gliclazide, and pioglitazone on markers of inflammation, coagulation, and endothelial function, no improvements were seen in inflammatory markers IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α with SU therapy compared with the other treatments, while similar glycemic control was attained Extensive data support the direct role of peroxisome proliferator—activated receptor PPAR γ in the negative regulation of inflammation.

TZDs are PPARγ agonists that improve metabolism by increasing insulin sensitivity primarily by increasing glucose utilization and decreasing hepatic glucose production. In rodents, they may have direct protective effects on the β-cell against oxidative stress and apoptosis, which may contribute to preservation of β-cell mass Despite extensive research, the precise mechanism s underlying the beneficial metabolic effects of TZDs are still not well understood and may involve stimulation of AMPK; both PPARγ and AMPK are important regulators of inflammation Indeed, TZDs have anti-inflammatory effects, which may affect both insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk.

TZDs have been shown to decrease inflammatory markers in visceral adipose tissue, liver, atherosclerotic plaques, and circulating plasma Pioglitazone treatment decreased invasion of adipose tissue by proinflammatory macrophages and increased hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity Treatment with TZDs also decreased inflammation in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and in atherosclerotic lesions 54 , Various clinical studies have examined the anti-inflammatory and antiatherogenic properties of TZDs.

A meta-analysis showed that pioglitazone and rosiglitazone significantly decreased serum CRP levels in both people with and people without diabetes, irrespective of effects on glycemia Treatment with TZDs improved endothelial function, decreased hs-CRP and inflammatory markers, and increased adiponectin levels 46 , 48 , 49 , 57 — In a study using 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance or type 2 diabetes, pioglitazone treatment attenuated inflammation in atherosclerotic plaques This was associated with increased HDL cholesterol level and decreased hs-CRP.

This may explain the finding that treatment of subjects with type 2 diabetes with pioglitazone was associated with reduced cardiovascular morbidity There is substantial evidence that dipeptidyl peptidase DPP -4 inhibitors can improve a variety of cardiovascular risk factors and inflammation 62 — DPP-4 inhibitors were found to suppress NLRP3, TLR4, and IL-1β expression in human macrophages High-fat diet—fed obese rodents of advanced age treated with vildagliptin for 11 months had improved glucose tolerance, enhanced insulin secretion, and higher survival rate 9.

Furthermore, treatment with the DPP-4 inhibitor prevented peri-insulitis, typically observed in rodents fed a high-fat diet. In clinical studies, a potent anti-inflammatory effect has been reported with sitagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Treatment with sitagliptin for 12 weeks reduced mRNA expression of CD26, TNF-α, TLR2, TLR4, proinflammatory kinases c-Jun N-terminal kinase-1 and inhibitory κB kinase, and inhibitor of chemokine receptor CCR-2 in mononuclear cells, as well as of plasma CRP, IL-6, and free fatty acids In a cohort of Japanese patients with uncontrolled diabetes and coronary artery disease, sitagliptin improved the inflammatory state and endothelial function Furthermore, sitagliptin added to the antidiabetes regimen of patients with type 2 diabetes already treated with metformin, and pioglitazone reduced hs-CRP and other inflammatory markers 67 , Studies examining the effects of the DPP-4 inhibitors vildagliptin and linagliptin showed that they also reduce inflammation 69 , However, large randomized controlled prospective studies analyzing the cardiovascular safety of different DPP-4 inhibitors, including Saxagliptin Assessment of Vascular Outcomes Recorded in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus—Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction SAVOR-TIMI 53 , Examination of Cardiovascular Outcomes with Alogliptin versus Standard of Care EXAMINE , and Trial Evaluating Cardiovascular Outcomes with Sitagliptin TECOS , have not demonstrated cardiovascular benefit with DPP-4 inhibitors 71 — Of note, in these studies follow-up was relatively short, the patients already had established cardiovascular disease, and the studies were designed to show noninferiority rather than superiority.

The findings should therefore be interpreted with caution. GLP-1 RAs induce weight loss and improve glycemia and cardiovascular risk factors, which may be partially mediated by their anti-inflammatory effects.

In patients with type 2 diabetes, treatment with GLP-1 analogs may modulate the proinflammatory activity of the innate immune system, leading to reduced proinflammatory activation of macrophages and consequently the expression and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and increased adiponectin With regard to the effects of GLP-1 analogs on CRP, a small placebo-controlled study demonstrated a significant reduction in CRP levels with exenatide In a month comparative study, exenatide demonstrated a significant decrease in hs-CRP compared with SU However, the effects of GLP-1 RAs on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are currently unknown.

Several studies have suggested that insulin may exert an anti-inflammatory response, independent of its effects on glycemia 76 , Insulin has been shown to alleviate inflammation through several mechanisms, including increased endothelial nitric oxide release and decreased expression of proinflammatory cytokines and immune mediators, such as NF-κB, intracellular adhesion molecule-1, and MCP-1, as well as several TLRs In a randomized parallel-group study in patients with type 2 diabetes, serum concentrations of hs-CRP and IL-6 were markedly reduced in insulin-treated patients compared with metformin, despite similar glycemic control This may suggest that insulin reduces inflammation, irrespective of its effects on glycemia.

In contrast, in LANCET, treatment with insulin compared with placebo or metformin did not provide an anti-inflammatory benefit, despite improved glycemia Similarly, in Outcome Reduction with an Initial Glargine Intervention ORIGIN , insulin treatment did not affect cardiovascular mortality Overall, the findings as to the anti-inflammatory effects of insulin are controversial and inconclusive.

Sodium—glucose cotransporter SGLT 2 inhibitors improve glycemia by inhibiting reabsorption of glucose in the proximal tubule of the kidney, inducing glucosuria and lowering plasma glucose levels. Currently, there are limited data available with regard to the anti-inflammatory properties of SGLT2 inhibitors.

Treatment with the SGLT inhibitor phlorizin in Psammomys obesus gerbils was shown to decrease islet inflammation, possibly related to the improvement in glucotoxicity 3. In type 2 diabetic mice, the SGLT2 inhibitor ipraglifloxin was shown to improve hyperglycemia, insulin secretion, hyperlipidemia, and liver levels of oxidative stress biomarkers and reduce markers of inflammation including IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1, and CRP levels It is of interest whether this effect is in part mediated by anti-inflammatory properties.

Targeted anti-inflammatory therapy has been suggested for both prevention and treatment of diabetes; this has previously been extensively reviewed Herein, we briefly summarize the current data on the metabolic effects of different anti-inflammatory treatments Table 2.

TNF-α was the first proinflammatory cytokine implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes; this has been confirmed in preclinical studies in various animal models 2.

However, to date, TNF-α antagonism has not demonstrated any clear benefit in type 2 diabetes in man 83 — Careful analysis of these clinical studies suggests that all have serious limitations, as they were underpowered and of short duration A number of observational studies have demonstrated that treatment of subjects without diabetes and with inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn disease, with TNF-α antagonists has improved glycemia and reduced the risk for developing diabetes.

While the majority of these studies are not prospective, and the improvement is not a direct effect on glucose metabolism necessarily but, rather, improvement in the underlying disease, these observations warrant a well-designed clinical study of TNF antagonism in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Since the discovery of the central role of IL-1β in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, numerous studies have investigated the role of IL-1β blockade on insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.

To date, eight independent clinical studies conducted with an IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra or IL-1β—specific antibody gevokizumab, canakizumab, and LY have demonstrated beneficial effects on metabolic parameters including decreased HbA 1c and enhanced insulin sensitivity and β-cell secretory function, with concomitant improvement in inflammatory markers 82 , 88 — In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study involving 70 patients with type 2 diabetes, IL-1 blockade with anakinra reduced HbA 1c , CRP, IL-6 levels, and the proinsulin-to-insulin ratio, while enhancing C-peptide secretion, indicating improved β-cell function; these beneficial effects persisted up to several weeks after treatment cessation Although the duration of these studies does not provide definitive proof, the findings suggest a role for IL-1β blockade in modulating diabetes-associated inflammation and metabolic dysregulation.

With regard to safety, IL-1β antagonism was generally well tolerated, with the main concern being that anakinra requires daily injections and often causes adverse reactions at the injection site. The humanized antibodies against IL-1β allow for monthly injections, which minimize these localized reactions.

Salsalate, a prodrug of salicylate, with fewer adverse reactions than aspirin and sodium salicylate, has demonstrated beneficial effects on glycemia and insulin sensitivity, probably through inhibition of the NF-κB pathway To date, there are seven independent clinical trials that consistently demonstrate improvement in glycemia with salsalate 94 — These data support the role of inflammation and of the NF-κB pathway in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes that might become novel therapeutic targets for type 2 diabetes.

Salsalate also reduces insulin clearance and may therefore partly improve glycemia via noninflammatory mechanisms. While the drug was well tolerated, a small increase in LDL cholesterol level was observed.

Further, urinary albumin secretion was also increased and returned to baseline upon discontinuation of treatment. While salsalate may be an effective and inexpensive adjunct to type 2 diabetes treatment, further studies are needed to confirm its long-term cardiovascular and renal safety and to determine whether these effects are sustainable with continued administration.

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Nathan C. Findings of a three-year investigation from noted that people with prediabetes were less likely to receive a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes while taking powdered fenugreek seed.

The study involved 66 people with diabetes who took 5 grams of the seed with milliliters of water twice a day before meals and 74 healthy participants who did not take it. The researchers concluded that taking the seed preparation led to a reduction in blood sugar resulting from increased insulin levels.

They also found that the preparation led to reduced cholesterol levels. Gymnema sylvestre is an herb that comes from India. One review of cell and rodent studies reported gymnema could:. One human study found those who took a mint containing gymnema reported a lesser desire for sweet treats such as chocolate.

However, it did not include people with diabetes as participants. Still, it may help people with diabetes who would like help reducing their sugar intake. Using either the ground leaf or leaf extract may be beneficial, but a person should speak with a healthcare professional beforehand.

Ginger is another herb that people have used for thousands of years in traditional medicines. People often use ginger to help treat digestive and inflammatory issues.

In , a review found that it could also help treat diabetes. The researchers concluded that ginger lowered blood sugar levels but not blood insulin levels. As a result, they suggested that ginger might reduce insulin resistance in people with type 2 diabetes.

However, the way that ginger accomplished this was unclear, and the team called for more research to confirm the findings.

A small study found that ginger could reduce both fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels. A person should always work with a healthcare professional before taking any new herb or supplement. They may suggest starting with a lower dosage and gradually increasing it until there are noticeable satisfactory effects.

Some herbs can interact with medications that do the same job, such as blood thinners and high blood pressure medications. It is essential to be aware of any interactions before trying a new supplement. The FDA does not monitor herbs and supplements, so different products may contain different herbs and fillers.

Also, packaging may recommend potentially harmful dosages, and products can be contaminated, for example, with pesticides. In addition, herbs and supplements are complementary treatment options and should not replace medications. People can discover more resources for living with type 2 diabetes by downloading the free Bezzy T2D app for iPhone or Android.

It provides access to expert content on type 2 diabetes, as well as peer support through one-on-one conversations and live group discussions. New guidelines from the American College of Physicians recommend that clinicians aim for moderate blood sugar levels in patients with type 2 diabetes….

Researchers suggest that targeting the gut microbiota could be a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of type 1 diabetes. People with diabetes can use various strategies to lower their blood sugar levels. The options include lifestyle and dietary changes and natural….

Acupuncture has many uses, and some research has suggested that it may work for diabetes, although scientists have not explained how it might work….

The main types of diabetes are classified as type 1 and type 2. A new study, however, says that the condition should be categorized as five types.

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Lower your blood sugars and reduce inflammation with this healthy diabetes meal plan. Emily Lachtrupp is a registered dietitian experienced in nutritional counseling, recipe analysis and meal plans. She's worked with clients who struggle with diabetes, weight loss, digestive issues and more.

In her spare time, you can find her enjoying all that Vermont has to offer with her family and her dog, Winston.

When it comes to diabetes, we often hear about managing carbohydrate intake, weight loss and exercise.

But did you know that inflammation can also increase blood sugar? Research shows that one of the underlying causes of diabetes is chronic low-grade inflammation. A combination of poor nutrition, higher body fat, stress and lack of exercise all contribute to increased inflammation in the body.

This can also result in insulin resistance, meaning higher blood sugars that can eventually develop into type 2 diabetes.

Eating more anti-inflammatory foods , like nuts, fish, olive oil, berries and dark leafy greens, can make a big difference. Read More: The Top 10 Anti-Inflammatory Foods for Diabetes. In this healthy diabetes meal plan, we pumped up the anti-inflammatory foods while keeping the carbohydrates consistent and the fiber intake high to help support healthy blood sugar levels and reduce inflammation.

Because excess body weight can increase both inflammation and blood sugars, we set this plan at 1, calories a day to promote a weight loss of 1 to 2 pounds a week, and included modifications to bump up the calories to 1, or 2, calories a day, depending on your needs.

Daily Totals: 1, calories, 50 g protein, g carbohydrates, 31 g fiber, 45 g fat, 8 g saturated fat, 1, mg sodium. To make it 1, calories: Increase to 2 servings Peanut Butter-Banana Cinnamon Toast at breakfast and increase to 15 almonds at P. To make it 2, calories: Include all modifications for the 1,calorie day, plus add 22 walnut halves to A.

snack and add 1 serving Guacamole Chopped Salad to dinner. Daily Totals: 1, calories, 58 g protein, g carbohydrates, 36 g fiber, 48 g fat, 6 g saturated fat, 1, mg sodium.

To make it 2, calories: Include all modifications for the 1,calorie day, plus add 15 walnut halves to P. snack and add 1 avocado, sliced, to dinner. Daily Totals: 1, calories, 58 g protein, g carbohydrates, 34 g fiber, 45 g fat, 6 g saturated fat, 1, mg sodium.

In addition, a recent review notes that people have used many parts of the plant to help treat diabetes, often with positive results. Taking bitter melon in the following forms may lead to reduced blood sugar levels in some people:. Please note that there is not enough evidence to support using bitter melon instead of insulin or other medications for diabetes.

However, it may help people rely less on those medications. A person should speak with a healthcare professional before starting any herbals as they may interact with current medications.

People have long used milk thistle to treat different ailments, especially as a tonic for the liver. Silymarin, the extract from milk thistle that scientists have paid most attention to, is a compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These may make milk thistle a useful herb for people with diabetes.

Many results of investigations into the effects of silymarin have been promising, but not promising enough for experts to recommend the herb or its extract alone for diabetes care, according to one review from The authors of research from found modest evidence that milk thistle might help lower glucose levels in people with diabetes.

They also warned that, while people generally tolerate the herb well, milk thistle could lead to:. Fenugreek is a seed that may help lower blood sugar levels. It contains fibers and chemicals that help slow down the digestion of carbohydrates and sugar.

There is also some evidence that the seed may help delay or prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. Findings of a three-year investigation from noted that people with prediabetes were less likely to receive a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes while taking powdered fenugreek seed.

The study involved 66 people with diabetes who took 5 grams of the seed with milliliters of water twice a day before meals and 74 healthy participants who did not take it.

The researchers concluded that taking the seed preparation led to a reduction in blood sugar resulting from increased insulin levels. They also found that the preparation led to reduced cholesterol levels.

Gymnema sylvestre is an herb that comes from India. One review of cell and rodent studies reported gymnema could:. One human study found those who took a mint containing gymnema reported a lesser desire for sweet treats such as chocolate.

However, it did not include people with diabetes as participants. Still, it may help people with diabetes who would like help reducing their sugar intake. Using either the ground leaf or leaf extract may be beneficial, but a person should speak with a healthcare professional beforehand.

Ginger is another herb that people have used for thousands of years in traditional medicines. People often use ginger to help treat digestive and inflammatory issues. In , a review found that it could also help treat diabetes.

The researchers concluded that ginger lowered blood sugar levels but not blood insulin levels. As a result, they suggested that ginger might reduce insulin resistance in people with type 2 diabetes.

However, the way that ginger accomplished this was unclear, and the team called for more research to confirm the findings. A small study found that ginger could reduce both fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels. A person should always work with a healthcare professional before taking any new herb or supplement.

They may suggest starting with a lower dosage and gradually increasing it until there are noticeable satisfactory effects. Some herbs can interact with medications that do the same job, such as blood thinners and high blood pressure medications.

It is essential to be aware of any interactions before trying a new supplement. The FDA does not monitor herbs and supplements, so different products may contain different herbs and fillers. Also, packaging may recommend potentially harmful dosages, and products can be contaminated, for example, with pesticides.

In addition, herbs and supplements are complementary treatment options and should not replace medications. Better understanding of the inflammatory basis for diabetes may provide for improved modalities for diabetes prevention and treatment, using novel targeted approaches in conjunction with current pharmacologic and lifestyle interventions.

This publication is based on the presentations at the 5th World Congress on Controversies to Consensus in Diabetes, Obesity and Hypertension CODHy. The Congress and the publication of this supplement were made possible in part by unrestricted educational grants from AstraZeneca.

Duality of Interest. No potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported. Sign In or Create an Account. Search Dropdown Menu. header search search input Search input auto suggest. filter your search All Content All Journals Diabetes Care. Advanced Search. User Tools Dropdown.

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Table 1 Anti-inflammatory effects of glucose-lowering agents used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Mechanism of action. Main findings. Remarks and limitations. View Large. Table 2 Metabolic effects of anti-inflammatory drugs.

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