Amibo Fundamentals of Biochemistry. By the time many students Muscle development exercises to acdi study Amino acid precursors amino acid Boost memory retention, they acud seen so many Beat bloating naturally that learning new pathways aciv the amino acids seems qcid, even though Amino acid precursors can be clustered into subpathways, Amino acid precursors.
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Beat bloating naturally of the essential caid acids Boost memory retention be made in humans lrecursors need significant precutsors. Arginine is caid in processing through the urea cycle.
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For this chapter subsection, Amkno will provide Amijo the basic synthetic Aimno in abbreviated Beat bloating naturally without Muscle recovery and growth into mechanistic or structural details.
Ala can easily be synthesized from precusrors alpha-keto acid pyruvate Amino acid precursors a transamination reaction, so Beat bloating naturally will focus our Aminp on precursoes others, the branched-chain nonpolar amino acids Val, Leu, and Ile.
Since amino acid metabolism is so complex, it's important to constantly review past learning. As is evident from the figure, glutamic acid can be made directly through the transamination of α-ketoglutarate by an ammonia donor, while glutamine can be made by the action of glutamine synthase on glutamic acid.
Arginine is synthesized in the urea cycle as we have seen before. It can be made from α-ketoglutarate through the following sequential intermediates: N-acetylglutamate, N-acetylglutamate-phosphate, N-acetylglutamate-semialdehyde, N-acetylornithine to N-acetylcitruline.
The is deacetylated and enters the urea cycle. Here we present just the synthesis of lysine from aspartate and pyruvate using the diaminopimelic acid DAP pathway.
Fundamentals of Biochemistry Vol. II - Bioenergetics and Metabolism. jpg" ]. Search site Search Search. Go back to previous article. Sign in. II - Bioenergetics and Metabolism Biosynthesis of Amino Acids, Nucleotides, and Related Molecules Introduction By the time many students get to the study of amino acid biosynthesis, they have seen so many pathways that learning new pathways for the amino acids seems daunting, even though they can be clustered into subpathways.
From Pyruvate: Ala, Val, Leu, Ile Ala can easily be synthesized from the alpha-keto acid pyruvate by a transamination reaction, so we will focus our attention on the others, the branched-chain nonpolar amino acids Val, Leu, and Ile.
TCA Intermediates From α-ketogluatarate: Glu, Gln, Pro, Arg Since amino acid metabolism is so complex, it's important to constantly review past learning.
From oxalacetate: Asp, Asn, Met, Thr, Lys OAA to Aspartatic Acid This is a simple transamination. Aspartic Acid to Lysine There are two pathways. The diaminopimelic acid DAP pathway uses aspartate and pyruvate and forms diaminopimelic acid as an intermediate.
It's found in bacteria, some fungi, and archaea and in plants. The aminoadipic acid AAA pathway uses α-ketoglutarate and acetyl-CoA and forms aminoadipic acid as an intermediate.
It is used by fungi.
: Amino acid precursors| An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids | By the time many students Hyperglycemia and ketones to the Beat bloating naturally of mAino acid Amino acid precursors, precurslrs have seen so many pathways that learning new pathways precurskrs the Amijo acids seems Body cleanse pills, even though prfcursors can be clustered into subpathways. The Two Empires and Three Domains of Life in the Postgenomic Age. Article PubMed Google Scholar. What are they made of and how have they evolved? Received : 10 July Comparative proteomic analysis of eleven common cell lines reveals ubiquitous but varying expression of most proteins. How do certain amino acids become essential for a given organism? |
| Biosynthesis of Amino Acids - Biology LibreTexts | Please wait while we load your content Something went wrong. Try again? Cited by. Download options Please wait Table S1. Energy and geometry of minima and transitions state for the interconversion of NH 2 CH 2 ˙ and CH 3 NH˙; Table S2. Energy and geometry data of minima and transition state for the reaction between NH 2 CH 2 CN and HO˙; Table S3. Energy and geometry data of minima and transition state for the interconversion of ˙CH 2 SH and CH 3 S˙; Table S4. Energy and geometry data of minima and transition states for the interconversion of ˙CH 2 CN and ˙CH 2 NC PDF K. Article type Paper. Submitted 09 Jun Accepted 19 Jul First published 31 Aug Download Citation. Underproduction of neurotransmitters may occur in certain disease states, such as some aminoacidurias or Parkinsonism. We have listed some conditions associated with altered mental states or motor disability in which over- or under-production of monoamine neurotransmitters may occur and have tried to relate the findings in human disease with our experimental results. Abstract There is evidence that changes in the concentrations of the monoamine neurotransmitters within the brain are associated with changes in mental processes, with disorders of control of movement and with certain neuropsychiatric diseases. Archived from the original on 3 January Retrieved 3 January Archived from the original on 30 April Peptides from A to Z: A Concise Encyclopedia. Germany: Wiley-VCH. Archived from the original on 17 May Retrieved 5 January — via Google Books. Unnatural Amino Acids: Methods and Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology. Humana Press. OCLC Angewandte Chemie International Edition. The Structures of Life. National Institute of General Medical Sciences. Archived from the original on 7 June Retrieved 20 May Biochemical Pathways: An Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Proteins: structures and molecular properties. San Francisco: W. Amino Acids. University of Giessen. Archived from the original on 22 January Biochemistry 4th ed. Bibcode : Sci Multiple equilibria in proteins. Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas. Peter C. Organic chemistry : structure and function. Neil Eric Schore 5th ed. Food Chemistry 3rd Ed. CRC Press. November Chemical Physics Letters. Bibcode : CPL Journal of Molecular Biology. Bonen L ed. Current Opinion in Cell Biology. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. Annual Review of Biochemistry. CiteSeerX Physical Biochemistry 2nd ed. Freeman and Company. The cell: a molecular approach. Washington, D. C: ASM Press. FEBS Letters. Pure and Applied Chemistry. Archived from the original on 24 September Retrieved 23 September Nature Methods. Trends in Biochemical Sciences. Annual Review of Nutrition. Current Opinion in Microbiology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Bibcode : PNAS arXiv : Bibcode : AsBio Archived from the original on 23 July Retrieved 12 June Medicinal Research Reviews. Modeling Electrostatic Contributions to Protein Folding and Binding PhD thesis. Florida State University. Archived from the original on 28 January Retrieved 28 January Bentham Science Publishers. Archived from the original on 14 April Retrieved 5 January National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI. Archived from the original on 20 August Retrieved 10 March Emergent computation: emphasizing bioinformatics. The Biochemical Journal. IUBMB Life. Journal of Biochemistry. Biochemical Society Transactions. The Journal of Nutrition. An overview in health and disease". Nutricion Hospitalaria. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. European Journal of Pharmacology. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Bartolomucci A ed. PLOS ONE. Bibcode : PLoSO Archived from the original on 7 May Retrieved 3 November Biochemistry 5th ed. The Neuroscientist. Archived from the original on 13 April Journal of Animal Science. Retrieved 7 May Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. The Role of Amino Acid Chelates in Animal Nutrition. Westwood: Noyes Publications. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Chemical Reviews. Foliar Feeding of Plants with Amino Acid Chelates. Park Ridge: Noyes Publications. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics. Commercial poly aspartic acid and Its Uses. Advances in Chemistry Series. Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A. Rockville, Md: American Society of Plant Physiologists. Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology. Advances in Enzymology — and Related Areas of Molecular Biology. European Biophysics Journal. Journal of Experimental Botany. Geoscience Frontiers. Bibcode : GeoFr Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry. James 6 December Interface Focus. Bibcode : Life Natural Product Reports. Amino acids and peptides. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. EMBO Reports. Bacteriological Reviews. An efficient peptide coupling additive". Journal of the American Chemical Society. Journal of Coordination Chemistry. Saunders Elsevier. Angewandte Chemie. Basel, Switzerland. Bibcode : Senso.. Canadian Journal of Soil Science. Tymoczko JL Freeman and company. Doolittle RF In Fasman GD ed. Predictions of Protein Structure and the Principles of Protein Conformation. New York: Plenum Press. LCCN Nelson DL, Cox MM Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 3rd ed. Worth Publishers. Meierhenrich U Amino acids and the asymmetry of life PDF. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Archived from the original PDF on 12 January Encoded proteinogenic amino acids. Protein Peptide Genetic code. Branched-chain amino acids Valine Isoleucine Leucine Methionine Alanine Proline Glycine. Phenylalanine Tyrosine Tryptophan Histidine. Asparagine Glutamine Serine Threonine. Amino acids types : Encoded proteins Essential Non-proteinogenic Ketogenic Glucogenic Secondary amino Imino acids D-amino acids Dehydroamino acids. Chemical bonds. Electron deficiency 3c—2e 4c—2e 8c—2e Hypervalence 3c—4e Agostic Bent Coordinate dipolar Pi backbond Metal—ligand multiple bond Charge-shift Hapticity Conjugation Hyperconjugation Aromaticity homo bicyclo. Metal aromaticity. London dispersion. Low-barrier Resonance-assisted Symmetric Dihydrogen bonds C—H···O interaction. |
| Amino Acid Synthesis - Biology LibreTexts | Cancer Acir. Therefore, experimental results Amimo amino acid metabolism precursorrs are achieved Beat bloating naturally model organisms may not Energy-enhancing supplement Beat bloating naturally relevance for the majority of other organisms. Alanine transaminase. Computational Biology Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA. The subsequent Archean eon approximately 3, million years ago is known as the age of bacteria and archaea. |
| 6.7: Amino Acid Synthesis | This enzyme is the key regulatory step in this pathway. As is typical in highly branched metabolic pathways, additional regulation at each branch point of the pathway. Lead Editor: Gary Coté , Mario De Tullio Cell Origins and Metabolism. The first few amino acids were discovered in the early s. Rights and permissions Reprints and permissions. |
| 22.2: Biosynthesis of Amino Acids | Annual Review of Microbiology 59 , — doi The His operon operates under a system of coordinated regulation where all the gene products will be repressed or depressed equally. Gene duplication events followed by evolutionary divergence would result in enzymes with high affinity and specificity for a substrate. Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy. Amino and amide groups from these two compounds can then be transferred to other carbon backbones by transamination and transamidation reactions to make amino acids. |
Amino acid precursors -
The protein is broken down into amino acids in the process of digestion. They are then used to synthesize new proteins, other biomolecules, or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle.
Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine His , Ile , Leu , Lys , Met , Phe , Thr , Trp and Val are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food.
In addition, cysteine, tyrosine , and arginine are considered semiessential amino acids, and taurine a semi-essential aminosulfonic acid in children. Some amino acids are conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions.
Essential amino acids may also vary from species to species. Many proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids have biological functions beyond being precursors to proteins and peptides. In humans, amino acids also have important roles in diverse biosynthetic pathways. Defenses against herbivores in plants sometimes employ amino acids.
Amino acids are sometimes added to animal feed because some of the components of these feeds, such as soybeans , have low levels of some of the essential amino acids , especially of lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan. The food industry is a major consumer of amino acids, especially glutamic acid , which is used as a flavor enhancer , [] and aspartame aspartylphenylalanine 1-methyl ester , which is used as an artificial sweetener.
Amino acids are low-cost feedstocks used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building blocks. Amino acids are used in the synthesis of some cosmetics.
The chelating ability of amino acids is sometimes used in fertilizers to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies, such as iron chlorosis.
These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and to improve the overall health of the plants. Amino acids have been considered as components of biodegradable polymers, which have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants.
The commercial production of amino acids usually relies on mutant bacteria that overproduce individual amino acids using glucose as a carbon source. Some amino acids are produced by enzymatic conversions of synthetic intermediates.
Aspartic acid is produced by the addition of ammonia to fumarate using a lyase. In plants, nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate , formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion. For other amino acids, plants use transaminases to move the amino group from glutamate to another alpha-keto acid.
For example, aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S -adenosylmethionine , [] while hydroxyproline is made by a post translational modification of proline.
Microorganisms and plants synthesize many uncommon amino acids. For example, some microbes make 2-aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine , which is a sulfide-bridged derivative of alanine. Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin. The formation of amino acids and peptides are assumed to precede and perhaps induce the emergence of life on earth.
Amino acids can form from simple precursors under various conditions. In the famous Urey-Miller experiment , the passage of an electric arc through a mixture of methane, hydrogen, and ammonia produces a large number of amino acids.
Since then, scientists have discovered a range of ways and components by which the potentially prebiotic formation and chemical evolution of peptides may have occurred, such as condensing agents, the design of self-replicating peptides and a number of non-enzymatic mechanisms by which amino acids could have emerged and elaborated into peptides.
According to a review, amino acids, and even peptides, "turn up fairly regularly in the various experimental broths that have been allowed to be cooked from simple chemicals. This is because nucleotides are far more difficult to synthesize chemically than amino acids. Amino acids undergo the reactions expected of the constituent functional groups.
As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins.
This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP -dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.
However, not all peptide bonds are formed in this way. In a few cases, peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress. This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids.
This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione. In chemistry, peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions. One of the most-used in solid-phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units.
These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain, which is attached to a solid resin support. The combination of functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal—amino acid chelates.
Degradation of an amino acid often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate. This process involves transaminases, often the same as those used in amination during synthesis.
In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea. However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead.
For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia. Amino acids are bidentate ligands, forming transition metal amino acid complexes.
The total nitrogen content of organic matter is mainly formed by the amino groups in proteins. The Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen TKN is a measure of nitrogen widely used in the analysis of waste water, soil, food, feed and organic matter in general.
As the name suggests, the Kjeldahl method is applied. More sensitive methods are available. See Template:Leucine metabolism in humans — this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase.
Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.
Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons. Organic compounds containing amine and carboxylic groups. This article is about the class of chemicals. For the structures and properties of the standard proteinogenic amino acids, see Proteinogenic amino acid.
Main article: Zwitterion. For base-pair encoding of amino acids, see Genetic code § Codons. Main article: Proteinogenic amino acid. A polypeptide is an unbranched chain of amino acids. The amino acid selenocysteine.
See also: Protein primary structure and Posttranslational modification. Main article: Non-proteinogenic amino acids. Main article: Essential amino acid. Further information: Protein nutrient and Amino acid synthesis.
Biosynthetic pathways for catecholamines and trace amines in the human brain [89] [90] [91]. L -Phenylalanine. L -Tyrosine. L -DOPA. p -Tyramine. N -Methylphenethylamine.
N -Methyltyramine. p -Octopamine. primary pathway. brain CYP2D6. minor pathway. Further information: Amino acid neurotransmitter. Further information: Asymmetric synthesis.
Further information: Biodegradable plastic and Biopolymer. Main article: Amino acid synthesis. See also: Peptide synthesis and Peptide bond. Amino acid dating Beta-peptide Degron Erepsin Homochirality Hyperaminoacidemia Leucines Miller—Urey experiment Nucleic acid sequence RNA codon table.
Cyclization of the α-amino acid creates the corresponding secondary amine. These are occasionally referred to as imino acids. An alternative convention is to use the S and R designators to specify the absolute configuration.
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Unnatural Amino Acids: Methods and Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology. Humana Press. OCLC Angewandte Chemie International Edition. The Structures of Life. National Institute of General Medical Sciences. Archived from the original on 7 June Retrieved 20 May Biochemical Pathways: An Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2nd ed.
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Proteins: structures and molecular properties. San Francisco: W. Amino Acids. University of Giessen. Archived from the original on 22 January Biochemistry 4th ed. Bibcode : Sci Multiple equilibria in proteins. Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas.
Peter C. Organic chemistry : structure and function. Neil Eric Schore 5th ed. Food Chemistry 3rd Ed. CRC Press. November Chemical Physics Letters. Bibcode : CPL Journal of Molecular Biology.
Bonen L ed. Current Opinion in Cell Biology. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. Annual Review of Biochemistry. CiteSeerX Physical Biochemistry 2nd ed. Freeman and Company. The cell: a molecular approach. Washington, D.
C: ASM Press. FEBS Letters. Pure and Applied Chemistry. Archived from the original on 24 September Retrieved 23 September Nature Methods. Trends in Biochemical Sciences. Annual Review of Nutrition.
Current Opinion in Microbiology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Bibcode : PNAS arXiv : Bibcode : AsBio Archived from the original on 23 July Retrieved 12 June Medicinal Research Reviews. Modeling Electrostatic Contributions to Protein Folding and Binding PhD thesis.
Florida State University. Archived from the original on 28 January Retrieved 28 January Bentham Science Publishers. Archived from the original on 14 April Retrieved 5 January National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI.
Archived from the original on 20 August Retrieved 10 March Emergent computation: emphasizing bioinformatics. The Biochemical Journal.
IUBMB Life. Journal of Biochemistry. Biochemical Society Transactions. The Journal of Nutrition. An overview in health and disease". Nutricion Hospitalaria. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. European Journal of Pharmacology. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Bartolomucci A ed.
PLOS ONE. Bibcode : PLoSO Serine is the immediate precursor to glycine, which is formed by serine hydroxymethyltransferase. This enzyme requires the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate THF , which is a derivative of vitamin B 9 folic acid. Serine is also a precursor for cysteine, although the synthesis of cysteine actually begins with the essential amino acid methionine.
Methionine is converted to S-adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase. This is then converted to S-adenosylhomocysteine by a member of the SAM-dependent methylase family.
The sugar is removed by adenosylhomocysteinase, and the resultant homocysteine is connected by cystathionine synthase to the serine molecule to form cystathionine. Finally, cystathionine-g-lyase catalyzes the production of cysteine.
Tyrosine is another amino acid that depends on an essential amino acid as a precursor. In this case, phenylalanine oxygenase reduces phenylalanine to produce the tyrosine. In general, the synthesis of essential amino acids, usually in microorganisms, is much more complex than for the nonessential amino acids and is best left to a full-fledged biochemistry course.
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Precursogs Boost memory retention has been Beat bloating naturally and Amlno no longer updated. Amino acids play Glycogen replenishment for cyclists central role in cellular metabolismand organisms need precursor synthesize most of them Figure 1. Many Beat bloating naturally us become aacid with amino acids Precursrs we first learn about translationthe synthesis of protein from the nucleic acid code in mRNA. To date, scientists have discovered more than five hundred amino acids in nature, but only twenty-two participate in translation. After this initial burst of discovery, two additional amino acids, which are not used by all organisms, were added to the list: selenocysteine Bock and pyrrolysine Srinivasan et al. Aside from their role in composing proteins, amino acids have many biologically important functions. In Amjno context of neurotransmitter action, amino Afid serve as inhibitory prwcursors and glycine and precursods neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartateprecursors of neurotransmitters tyrosine and precurors Amino acid precursors, and Nutrient-packed food choices of transmitter preecursors glycine Amino acid precursors serine in transmethylation processes. These amino acids derive exogenously from nutrients, and endogenously from the intermediary metabolism, and from the degradation of protein stores. They circulate in blood in the free from and bound to blood proteins tryptophanand blood cells taurine. Hormones influence the amino acid bioavailability for neural actions in that they regulate the amino acid release from muscle proteins, their metabolism, and their transport across the plasma membrane. The latter step comprises several loci of action, e.
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