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That said, there is limited evidence that ashwagandha may exacerbate hyperthyroidism symptoms by boosting T3 and T4 levels, potentially leading to a serious form of hyperthyroidism called thyrotoxicosis 1415 Thyrotoxicosis occurs when your body has extremely high levels of circulating thyroid hormones but low levels of TSH 15 Untreated, this condition can lead to heart failure, weight loss, extreme thirst, and skin issues 15 While more evidence is needed to verify a link between the two, it is important to speak with your healthcare practitioner before taking ashwagandha, especially if you have hyperthyroidism.
By boosting T3 and T4 thyroid hormone levels, ashwagandha may play a role in managing hypothyroidism but potentially worsen symptoms of hyperthyroidism. For most healthy people, ashwagandha is considered safe 14 However, women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should avoid it, in addition to people with hyperthyroidism Furthermore, this herb may interact with sedatives, immunosuppressants, and anticonvulsants, as well as medications for the following conditions 161718 :.
In addition, it may increase testosterone levels, so it should be avoided by people with hormone-sensitive prostate cancer 1 While largely considered safe, ashwagandha should not be taken by those who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or hyperthyroid.
Ashwagandha is usually taken in supplement form. Most supplements come in mg tablets ingested twice per day after eating. It also comes as a powder and is usually added to water, milk, juices, or smoothies. Some people mix it into dishes or sprinkle it on top of yogurt. Ashwagandha is usually taken as a supplement in mg doses twice per day.
It is also available as a powder or tea. Ashwagandha has been used for centuries in alternative medicine.
Preliminary research shows that it may improve thyroid levels in those with hypothyroidism. However, it may worsen the symptoms of hyperthyroidism. Therefore, you should consult your healthcare provider before taking ashwagandha for a thyroid condition. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available.
Hyperthyroidism is a condition that requires medical management, but some natural treatment options may help your symptoms or complement other…. Ashwagandha is a medicinal herb used to treat many ailments from stress and anxiety to blood sugar levels. This article reviews the optimal dosages….
Your thyroid gland is responsible for growth and metabolism in your body. Here are 10 common signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism, or low thyroid….
Try a warm cup of Moon Milk made with a blend of powerful spices and herbs to help you unwind and sleep better. Understand the link between your stress levels and your thyroid.
Thyroid storm is a result of untreated hyperthyroidism. An individual's heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature can reach dangerously high…. Common thyroid disorders include Hashimoto's disease, Graves' disease, and goiter. Learn about their symptoms, diagnosis, and treatments.
Dizziness and balance issues can be symptoms of untreated thyroid disorders such as hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Learn more. A Quiz for Teens Are You a Workaholic? How Well Do You Sleep? Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. Nutrition Evidence Based Does Ashwagandha Improve Thyroid Health?
Medically reviewed by Marie Lorraine Johnson MS, RD, CPT — By Katey Davidson, MScFN, RD, CPT — Updated on August 31, Thyroid disorders Ashwagandha's effects Side effects How to use it Bottom line Ashwagandha has been used as an alternative treatment for thyroid issues. Types of thyroid disorders.
Can ashwagandha improve thyroid health? Safety and side effects. How to use ashwagandha. The bottom line. How we reviewed this article: History. Aug 31, Written By Katey Davidson, MScFN, RD, CPT. Medically Reviewed By Marie Lorraine Johnson MS, RD, CPT.
Jun 11, Written By Katey Davidson, MScFN, RD, CPT. Share this article. Read this next. How to Control Hyperthyroidism Naturally. Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson, Ph. Ashwagandha Dosage: How Much Should You Take per Day? By Alina Petre, MS, RD NL.
Hypothyroidism: Signs and Symptoms. Medically reviewed by Matthew Thorpe, MD, PhD. Medically reviewed by Natalie Olsen, R.
Hyperthyroidism Diet. Medically reviewed by Lisa Hodgson, RDN, CDN, CDCES, FADCES. Medically reviewed by Natalie Butler, R. The Impact of Stress on Your Thyroid. Medically reviewed by Deborah Weatherspoon, Ph. Thyroid Storm. Medically reviewed by Alana Biggers, M.
Medically reviewed by Marina Basina, M. Can a Thyroid Disorder Cause Dizziness and Balance Problems?
: Thyroid Strengthening Extracts| Herbs for Hypothyroidism | Strengtehning Thyroid Strengthening Extracts body is Strehgthening need Thyrojd more energy Thyroid Strengthening Extracts certain Thyroid Strengthening Extracts Strengthenign for example, during pregnancy — the thyroid gland produces more hormones. Herbal womens health supplements deficiency Tbyroid multiple adverse effects on growth and development and is the most common cause of preventable intellectual disability in the world [ 41 ]. Addressing thyroid dysfunction often requires a multi-faceted, whole-person approach and a thorough understanding of the particular imbalance or pathology. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Potential Issues Detox Reaction. Infants who are exclusively breastfed depend on maternal iodine sufficiency for optimal development. |
| Herbs for Thyroid Health | A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed that vitamin D improved TSH levels and calcium levels in hypothyroid patients. Iodine is metabolized into its active form — iodide — in the gut. International Journal of Green Pharmacy IJGP , 12 Cooper Complete Zinc and Eye Health supplements contain 25 mg of zinc per serving. Coleus forskohlii is a plant native to India used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine to treat various diseases including underactive thyroid. |
| Megafood Thyroid Strength® is Proudly Certified | Synthetic thyroid medications are man-made and must be prescribed by a doctor. Iodine status is typically assessed using urinary iodine measurements. They are also required for proper skeletal and central nervous system development in fetuses and infants [ 1 ]. Iodine insufficiency remains a public health problem in 25 countries with a total population of about million people [ 47 ]. When should you take thyroid supplements? |
| Supplement Facts | It Skiing or snowboarding affects women Thyroid Strengthening Extracts reproductive age, but it Thyroid Strengthening Extracts Extrats occur during menopause, especially in Tbyroid taking estrogens [ 74 ]. Immune System. However, these links are not definite, and researchers have called for more studies to confirm them. Thyroid cancer is the fifth most common cancer in women in the U. Wholistic Veterinary Care. Complement Ther Clin Pract. |
| Iodine - Health Professional Fact Sheet | An imbalance between them may indicate thyroid issues Common symptoms of hypothyroidism include weight gain, fatigue, constipation, goiters, and dry skin In contrast, hyperthyroidism is characterized by the overproduction of thyroid hormone. People with this condition usually experience shortness of breath, an irregular heartbeat, fatigue, hair loss, and unintentional weight loss Both conditions are typically treated with synthetic medication. However, some may seek natural alternatives, such as ashwagandha. Hypothyroidism is a thyroid disorder characterized by low levels of thyroid hormone, whereas hyperthyroidism is linked to high levels. Some people use ashwagandha to treat these conditions instead of synthetic medication. However, recent studies indicate promising results regarding hypothyroidism. An 8-week study in 50 people with hypothyroidism found that taking mg of ashwagandha root extract daily led to significant improvements in thyroid levels, compared to taking a placebo 5. Those in the ashwagandha group showed significant increases in triiodothyronine T3 and thyroxine T4 levels of Furthermore, thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH levels decreased by Chronic stress increases cortisol levels, leading to lower levels of T3 and T4. Ashwagandha appears to stimulate your endocrine system, boosting thyroid hormone levels by reducing cortisol 5. In another eight-week study, adults with bipolar disorder were given ashwagandha. While three participants experienced increases in T4 levels, this study was limited More studies are needed to better understand the long-term effects of ashwagandha on hypothyroidism. That said, there is limited evidence that ashwagandha may exacerbate hyperthyroidism symptoms by boosting T3 and T4 levels, potentially leading to a serious form of hyperthyroidism called thyrotoxicosis 14 , 15 , Thyrotoxicosis occurs when your body has extremely high levels of circulating thyroid hormones but low levels of TSH 15 , Untreated, this condition can lead to heart failure, weight loss, extreme thirst, and skin issues 15 , While more evidence is needed to verify a link between the two, it is important to speak with your healthcare practitioner before taking ashwagandha, especially if you have hyperthyroidism. By boosting T3 and T4 thyroid hormone levels, ashwagandha may play a role in managing hypothyroidism but potentially worsen symptoms of hyperthyroidism. For most healthy people, ashwagandha is considered safe 14 , However, women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should avoid it, in addition to people with hyperthyroidism Furthermore, this herb may interact with sedatives, immunosuppressants, and anticonvulsants, as well as medications for the following conditions 16 , 17 , 18 :. In addition, it may increase testosterone levels, so it should be avoided by people with hormone-sensitive prostate cancer 1 , While largely considered safe, ashwagandha should not be taken by those who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or hyperthyroid. Ashwagandha is usually taken in supplement form. Most supplements come in mg tablets ingested twice per day after eating. It also comes as a powder and is usually added to water, milk, juices, or smoothies. Some people mix it into dishes or sprinkle it on top of yogurt. Ashwagandha is usually taken as a supplement in mg doses twice per day. It is also available as a powder or tea. Ashwagandha has been used for centuries in alternative medicine. Preliminary research shows that it may improve thyroid levels in those with hypothyroidism. However, it may worsen the symptoms of hyperthyroidism. Therefore, you should consult your healthcare provider before taking ashwagandha for a thyroid condition. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available. Hyperthyroidism is a condition that requires medical management, but some natural treatment options may help your symptoms or complement other…. Ashwagandha is a medicinal herb used to treat many ailments from stress and anxiety to blood sugar levels. This article reviews the optimal dosages…. Your thyroid gland is responsible for growth and metabolism in your body. Here are 10 common signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism, or low thyroid…. Try a warm cup of Moon Milk made with a blend of powerful spices and herbs to help you unwind and sleep better. Understand the link between your stress levels and your thyroid. Thyroid storm is a result of untreated hyperthyroidism. An individual's heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature can reach dangerously high…. No herbs can replace thyroid hormones, but some may support thyroid function and health. The thyroid is an endocrine gland that controls thyroid hormone production. When irregularities develop in the thyroid, it can cause a hormone imbalance that may impact the body. Thyroid conditions affect around million people across the world. This article considers eight herbs that may support the thyroid gland. The thyroid is an endocrine gland that sits in the neck. It produces hormones that affect the function and metabolism of all red blood cells containing a nucleus. However, thyroid conditions are one of the most common forms of endocrine disorders globally. Thyroid disorders can cause issues relating to:. Many different thyroid conditions may develop, including:. Learn more about the signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism here. Ashwagandha, or Withania somnifera , is a herb that can offer different benefits. The herb has properties that are:. Research from shows that using a methanolic extract, such as ashwagandha, supports thyroid function by reducing oxidative stress and improving thyroid hormones. However, potential side effects can include an upset stomach, diarrhea, and drowsiness. Learn more about ashwagandha here. Ginger is a common spice, but the root classifies as a herb. Ginger has many health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant , and antibacterial properties. Using ginger supplements may benefit people experiencing hypothyroidism, where the thyroid is not producing enough hormones. The herb may also reduce weight and regulate lipid and hormone profiles. If individuals take larger doses, ginger can have potential side effects, including mouth and throat irritation, digestive discomfort, heartburn, and diarrhea. Doctors and healthcare professionals do not yet know enough about ginger in therapeutic doses. Due to this, pregnant people and those who are breastfeeding should avoid ginger supplements and discuss any intended use with their doctor. Learn more about ginger here. Traditional Algerian medicine commonly uses the herb Atriplex halimus to manage thyroid disorders. Research suggests that the herb benefits overactive and underactive thyroids and is effective in treating thyroid cysts due to its phytochemical content. However, there is currently little research into this area, so the dangers and side effects are unknown. Learn more about polyphenols and phytochemicals here. Black cumin, or Nigella sativa , is another herb that traditional Algerian medicine uses to treat thyroid conditions. It contains phytochemicals and biological components that support various functions in the body, including:. Black cumin is likely safe when taken in small doses for a short time. However, some people report allergic skin rashes, and those taking blood-thinning medications should avoid black cumin altogether. Learn more about the potential health benefits of cumin here. Bunium incrassatum is a medicinal herb that may benefit those with different thyroid conditions. For example, a study on rats found that the herb can help repair damaged thyroid tissue due to an overactive and underactive thyroid. Further studies will confirm the benefits in humans, but the herb has antioxidant properties and contains phytochemicals that can protect cells. Learn more about common digestive problems here. Saussurea costus is a form of thistle that people in Saudi Arabia use extensively , though it also plays a more general role in traditional medicine. The herb has antioxidant properties and contains flavonoids. There is little scientific evidence to support the role of Saussurea costus in treating thyroid conditions. However, Saussurea costus continues to play a significant role in traditional medicine, and some research in animal models has found the herb to have benefits for managing thyroid conditions. Experts know little about the side effects, drug interactions, or the effects of S. costus on those who are pregnant or breastfeeding. Some people also report allergic reactions, including contact dermatitis. Learn more about the benefits of antioxidants here. In traditional medicine, agarwood, or Aquilaria malaccensis , may play a role in helping thyroid cancer. This is because agarwood contains antioxidants that are detrimental to several cancer cell lines. However, more studies are necessary to increase confidence in the benefits of agarwood for thyroid cancer and to better understand any potentially harmful side effects. Learn more about thyroid cancer here. Bugleweed, Lycopus spp. |
Thyroid Strengthening Extracts -
Zinc Supplement 25 mg This Zinc Supplement is comprised of zinc gluconate and zinc citrate for optimal absorption.
Zinc is important for muscle function, healthy aging, skin and immune health. Cooper Complete Original Comprehensive Multivitamin contains mcg of iodine from kelp per daily serving.
Consult your physician or health care provider—especially if you are or plan to get pregnant—about how much iodine you need. The body needs zinc to produce hormones T3, T4 and thyroid stimulating hormone. Zinc deficiency itself can cause hypothyroidism, as thyroid hormones are essential for the absorption of zinc.
Food sources for zinc include meat, fish and seafood, fortified breakfast cereals, beans and legumes. Some denture adhesives contain zinc , and overuse can significantly increase zinc levels in the body. Cooper Complete Zinc and Eye Health supplements contain 25 mg of zinc per serving.
Comprehensive Original Comprehensive Multivitamin and Basic One Daily Multivitamins each contain 15 mg of zinc per serving. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements advises that overall supplementation and dietary intake of zinc does not exceed 40 mg per day.
Iron is needed to synthesize and metabolize thyroid hormones in the body. Both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can cause iron deficiency or anemia, which can significantly affect thyroid gland function, negatively impact treatment and block the relief of symptoms.
Iron deficiency can even trigger hypothyroidism. And, while one might think higher levels of iron would help prevent anemia, they actually appear to trigger an inflammatory response that prevents the body from using iron normally. Cooper Complete Original Comprehensive Multivitamin With Iron and Basic One Daily Multivitamin With Iron contain 18 mg of iron per serving.
Cooper Complete Iron contains 54 mg of iron per serving. Ashwagandha Supplement mg Ashwagandha Supplement supports a healthy response to stress, the immune system, restful sleep, and perimenopause discomfort. A small study of 50 adults aged has shown improved thyroid function in adults with subclinical hypothyroidism—defined as moderately elevated TSH levels 4.
While more research is needed, this small study was interesting. Cooper Complete Ashwagandha supplement contains mg per capsule. The body needs selenium for thyroid gland function , as well as reproduction, DNA production and protecting the damage caused by free radicals from infection. While the typical American diet finds major sources of selenium in breads, grains, meats, poultry, fish and eggs, the richest food sources of selenium are brazil nuts, seafood and organ meats.
Selenium deficiency is very rare in the U. National Institutes of Health recommends daily selenium consumption of 55 mcg for adults and higher amounts for pregnant 60 mcg and breastfeeding women 70 mcg.
Cooper Complete Comprehensive Original Multivitamin and Basic One Daily Multivitamin each contain mcg of selenium per serving. While these studies may be finding connections between selenium consumption and certain health conditions and risks, whether selenium dietary supplements can help treat or reduce the risk of these conditions is not clear.
More research is needed to understand the effects of selenium supplementation on thyroid disease. Vitamin D3 25 mcg IU Liquid Drops Vitamin D3 Liquid Drops are designed for individuals who don't get enough vitamin D from sunlight or diet and prefer a non-pill, liquid vitamin.
Each small, one-ounce bottle provides almost drops of IU 25 mcg of vitamin D3. Vitamin D is an essential nutrient for the normal functioning of the thyroid gland, just as it is for many other organs. And, while vitamin D deficiency is considered a risk factor for autoimmune thyroid diseases and thyroid cancer, the medical community continues to seek a better understanding of the relationship.
Cooper Complete Comprehensive Original Multivitamin and Basic One Daily Multivitamin both contain 50 IU IU of vitamin D3 , and standalone D3 options include 25 mcg IU and mcg IU.
Levels of calcium in the body tend to reflect its level of thyroid hormones. Studies have shown patients with hyperthyroidism tend to have high calcium levels, while hypothyroidism patients have lower calcium levels.
But, while calcium supplementation is often recommended for patients with hypothyroidism—low thyroid hormone and calcium levels—specifically how and when supplements are taken is critically important.
Treatment of hypothyroidism usually involves thyroid hormone replacement medications, the effectiveness of which can be compromised by calcium supplements or antacids with calcium, as they can interfere with the absorption of those medications.
FDA does not require food labels to list iodine content unless iodine has been added to the food. Products made without these conditioners contain very little iodine. The USDA, FDA and Office of Dietary Supplements-National Institutes of Health ODS-NIH Database for the Iodine Content of Common Foods [ 8 ] lists the iodine content of numerous foods and beverages.
The United States, Canada, and dozens of other countries have salt-iodization programs [ 3 , 16 , 17 ]. In the United States, salt manufacturers have been adding iodine to table salt since the s, although this practice is still voluntary [ 18 ].
FDA has approved the use of potassium iodide and cuprous iodide for salt iodization [ 19 ], whereas the WHO recommends the use of potassium iodate due to its greater stability, particularly in warm, damp, or tropical climates [ 3 ].
However, most salt intake in the United States comes from processed foods, and food manufacturers almost always use noniodized salt in these foods. If they do use iodized salt, they must list the salt as iodized in the ingredient list on the food label [ 9 ]. Specialty salts, such as sea salt, kosher salt, Himalayan salt, and fleur de sel, are not usually iodized.
Product labels will indicate if the salt is iodized or provides iodide. As shown in Table 2, noniodized sea salt provides virtually no iodine [ 8 ]. In dietary supplements, iodine is often present as potassium iodide or sodium iodide [ 20 ].
Supplements containing kelp, a seaweed that contains iodine, are also available. A small study found that people absorb potassium iodide almost completely Dietary supplements containing only iodine are also available, and many contain high doses, sometimes above the UL [ 20 ].
Many dietary supplements that contain iodine are listed in the Dietary Supplement Label Database from the NIH [ 20 ]. This database contains label information from tens of thousands of dietary supplement products on the U.
The Total Diet Study TDS , an FDA monitoring program, provides estimated iodine intakes of the U. population [ 23 ]. Through the TDS program, foods that represent the average U.
diet are purchased and analyzed for several components, including iodine. These intakes meet or exceed the EAR for all groups. TDS data do not include iodine that people obtain from the discretionary use of iodized salt [ 25 , 26 ].
Because many U. households use iodized salt, TDS data likely underestimate the true iodine intake of most U. Iodine status is typically assessed using urinary iodine measurements. Spot urine iodine measurements are a useful indicator of iodine status within populations [ 28 , 29 ].
However, multiple hour urinary iodine or multiple spot urine measurements are more accurate for individuals [ 4 , 30 ]. Median urinary iodine concentrations, from spot samples collected as part of a large survey, can be used to characterize the iodine status of populations [ 31 ].
However, because spot samples are not a suitable indicator of individual iodine status [ 30 ], these measurements cannot be used to diagnose individual cases of iodine deficiency or to identify the proportion of a population with iodine deficiency or with excessive iodine intakes [ 31 ].
Urinary iodine measurements from NHANES have been used since to monitor the iodine status of the U. population [ 32 ]. Since the inception of the NHANES monitoring program, urinary iodine measurements have shown that the general U. population is iodine sufficient. Much of this decline was a result of decreased levels of iodine in milk due to the reduced use of iodine-containing feed supplements and iodophor sanitizing agents in the dairy industry [ 34 ] as well as the reduced use of iodate dough conditioners by commercial bakers.
The use of erythrosine, an iodine-containing food dye commonly used in fruit-flavored breakfast cereals, also decreased during this time [ 34 ] though it is unclear to what extent this change actually affected urinary iodine levels because the bioavailability of iodine from erythrosine has been found to be low [ 35 ].
This sharp decline in urinary iodine levels caused some concern during the late s that the iodine sufficiency of the U. population could be at risk if this trend continued [ 33 ].
More recent NHANES measurements indicate that urinary iodine levels have stabilized in the general U. These values have essentially remained unchanged in the last three NHANES surveys, indicating that the dietary iodine intake of the general U. population has remained stable since [ 36 ].
Analyses of NHANES datasets from to indicate that a substantial portion of pregnant women in the United States are iodine insufficient. Suboptimal iodine status during pregnancy has also been observed in Australia [ 39 ]. Pregnant women who do not consume dairy products may be particularly at risk of iodine insufficiency.
Overall, it appears that the general U. population has adequate iodine intake but that some pregnant women may be at risk for iodine deficiency. Continued national iodine monitoring is needed with more emphasis on population subgroups that are most susceptible to iodine deficiency disorders.
Iodine deficiency has multiple adverse effects on growth and development and is the most common cause of preventable intellectual disability in the world [ 41 ]. Iodine deficiency disorders result from inadequate thyroid hormone production secondary to insufficient iodine [ 5 ].
During pregnancy and early infancy, iodine deficiency can cause irreversible effects. Under normal conditions, the body tightly controls thyroid hormone concentrations via TSH. TSH increases thyroidal iodine uptake from the blood and the production of thyroid hormone.
However, very low iodine intakes can reduce thyroid hormone production even in the presence of elevated TSH levels. Goiter is usually the earliest clinical sign of iodine deficiency [ 2 ]. In pregnant women, iodine deficiency of this magnitude can cause major neurodevelopmental deficits and growth retardation in the fetus as well as miscarriage and stillbirth [ 5 ].
Chronic, severe iodine deficiency in utero causes cretinism, a condition characterized by intellectual disability, deaf mutism, motor spasticity, stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and other physical and neurological abnormalities [ 5 ].
In infants and children, less severe iodine deficiency can also cause neurodevelopmental deficits such as somewhat lower than average intelligence as measured by IQ [ 1 , 42 , 43 ]. Mild to moderate maternal iodine deficiency has also been associated with an increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children [ 44 ].
In adults, mild to moderate iodine deficiency can cause goiter as well as impaired mental function and work productivity secondary to hypothyroidism. Chronic iodine deficiency may be associated with an increased risk of the follicular form of thyroid cancer [ 45 ].
Historically, iodine deficiency was endemic in mountainous regions of the United States and Mexico, and in the so called goiter belt around the Great Lakes [ 46 ]. Thanks to a more national food supply, iodized salt, and other factors, overt iodine deficiency is now uncommon in North America.
International efforts since the early s have dramatically reduced the incidence of iodine deficiency worldwide, but some groups of people are still at risk of inadequate iodine intake. Iodine insufficiency remains a public health problem in 25 countries with a total population of about million people [ 47 ].
The following groups are among those most likely to have inadequate iodine status. The use of iodized salt is the most widely used strategy to control iodine deficiency.
Surveys indicate that many pregnant women in the United States might consume insufficient amounts of iodine even if they do not have signs or symptoms of overt iodine deficiency [ 36 ].
The impact, if any, of this insufficient intake on fetal development is not known. Seafood, eggs, milk, and milk products are among the best sources of iodine.
Vegans, people with certain food allergies or lactose intolerance, and others who consume no or minimal amounts of these foods might not obtain sufficient amounts of iodine [ 49 , 50 ].
Iodine-deficient soils produce crops that have low iodine levels. Mountainous areas e. People living in these areas are at risk of iodine deficiency unless they consume iodized salt or foods produced outside the iodine-deficient area. Consumption of foods that contain goitrogens, substances that interfere with the uptake of iodine in the thyroid, can exacerbate iodine deficiency [ 2 ].
Foods high in goitrogens include soy, cassava, and cruciferous vegetables e. These issues are of concern primarily for people living in areas prone to iodine deficiency [ 6 ]. For most people, including most of the U. population, who have adequate iodine intakes and eat a variety of foods, the consumption of reasonable amounts of foods containing goitrogens is not a concern.
Due to its important role in fetal and infant development and thyroid hormone production, iodine is a critical nutrient for proper health at all life stages. Iodine sufficiency during pregnancy is extremely important for proper fetal development.
During early pregnancy, when fetal thyroid gland development is incomplete, the fetus depends entirely on maternal T4 and, therefore, on maternal iodine intake [ 52 ]. Sufficient iodine intake after birth is also important for proper physical and neurological growth and maturation.
Research suggests that infants are more sensitive to the effects of iodine deficiency than other age groups, as indicated by changes in their TSH and T4 levels in response to even mild iodine deficiency [ 54 ].
Although severe iodine deficiency disorders are uncommon in the United States, mild to moderate iodine insufficiency during pregnancy may subtly affect fetal development [ 4 , ]. A meta-analysis of 6, mother-child pairs from three birth cohorts in the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom found that verbal IQ assessed in children at 1.
Despite the importance of iodine for proper fetal development, the effects of iodine supplements during pregnancy on infant and child neurodevelopment in particular are inconclusive.
Iodine supplementation had no effect on child cognitive, language, or motor scores [ 62 ]. Breast milk contains iodine, although concentrations vary based on maternal iodine levels.
Infants who are exclusively breastfed depend on maternal iodine sufficiency for optimal development. During the weaning period, infants not receiving iodine-containing complementary foods may also be at risk of iodine deficiency, even in countries with iodized salt programs [ 64 , 65 ].
To ensure that adequate amounts of iodine are available for proper fetal and infant development, several national and international groups recommend iodine supplementation during pregnancy, lactation, and early childhood.
WHO recommendations for these countries also include breastfeeding through 24 months of age, combined with complementary foods fortified with iodine for children between the ages of 7—24 months [ 7 ]. Similarly, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that women who are pregnant, planning to become pregnant, or lactating take a daily supplement providing at least mcg iodine and use iodized salt [ 67 ].
The use of iodine-containing dietary supplements by pregnant and lactating women in the United States appears to be low compared to current recommendations. Of 59 best-selling prenatal multivitamin supplements on the market in —, only 34 contained iodine [ 22 ].
The median iodine content was mcg per daily serving, with a range of 25 to mcg; 25 of the 34 provided iodine as potassium iodide. According to — NHANES data,
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