Antipathogenic surface finishes -
For example, in the report by Ai et al. In another study by Davis et al. derived 3,6-O-sulfated chitosan sulfated chitosan was shown, by Gao et al. Li et al. The SL-chitosan binds to hemagglutinin protein on the surface of an influenza particle, which is responsible for viral attachment to the host cell surface via binding with surface glycoligands such as SL.
Guo et al. CytPM-COS effectively inhibited tobacco mosaic virus TMV , suppressed viral RNA and capsid protein accumulation and triggered production of ROS and induced upregulation of various defence responsive genes in the tobacco plants.
Davydova et al. Fucoidan is an anionic sulfated polysaccharide extracted from brown marine algae. It was recently demonstrated that sulfated polysaccharides exhibit antiviral activities both in vivo and in vitro and, since they have low cytotoxicity in comparison to other antiviral drugs, there is interest in their use in drug and gene delivery systems and wound and burn healing formulations As reported by Ponce et al.
As postulated by Bernard et al. It was also tested by Wyde et al. Hidari et al. They showed the glycopolymers exerted viral inhibition properties against human and swine influenza viruses.
The effectiveness of the inhibition was dependant on and growing with the number of lactosamine repeats on the glycopolymers. Similar to the SL-chitosan described earlier, the lactosamine-glycopolymers bind to hemagglutinin protein acting as competitive inhibitors that prevent virus entry to the host cell, which seem to be their predominant antiviral mechanism.
Avian and equine viruses were also tested, yet no inhibition was observed by any of the lactosamine-glycopolymers. Sequence analysis and molecular modelling highlighted that amino acid substitution of haemagglutinin along with core carbohydrate and sialyl linkages on the receptor glycoconjugate have an impact on its antiviral properties Mucins are highly glycosylated polymeric proteins.
They are the main constituents of mucus—a porous biopolymer matrix produced by epithelial tissues in most animals, which serves as the first line of defence against many pathogens, including viruses.
Lieleg et al. showed the ability of isolated porcine gastric mucins to block human pathogenic viruses like human papillomavirus HPV, Merkel cell polyomavirus MCV , and a strain of influenza A. In this study, a mucin layer was applied on three different cell lines, which were next incubated with the viruses.
It was demonstrated that the mucin isolates were highly effective in blocking the viruses from infecting the cells. The researchers speculated that the antiviral mechanism of the mucins lies in the trapping of virus particles in the mucin matrix, caused by multiple low-affinity bonds between the mucin sugar groups and the virus capsids.
The efficiency of mucin shielding layer towards viral infection was also shown to be dependent on the mucin concentration, increasing with increased mucin content. AMPs are short, usually positively charged oligopeptides with diverse structures and functions.
They play a fundamental role in the innate immune system response to injuries and infections. AMPs are expressed in a wide variety of tissues including skin, eyes, oral cavity, ears, airway, lung, female reproductive tract, cervical-vaginal fluid, intestines, and urinary tract , Defensins and cathelicidin LL37, derived from humans have been extensively studied for its antibacterial effects but more recently anti-viral properties are being elucidated.
The Antimicrobial Peptide Database APD contains more than AMPs, among which are AMPs with antiviral activities. A few chosen examples are briefly described below.
There are reports of incorporating AMPs into other materials, which have been assessed for their antimicrobial properties , , However, methods to graft or adsorb AMPs on the surface to fabricate, for example, medically useful products are required to fully realise their potential.
Yu et al. The peptides inhibited the infection by targeting the endosomal cell-entry step by impairing cathepsin B-mediated processing of Ebola virus glycoprotein.
AMPs synthesized by incorporating D-amino acids cannot be degraded by intracellular enzymes and exhibit a higher degree of activity in the early stages of viral infection rather than during its replication stage.
In different reports, Barlow et al. Cathlecidin derived peptides GF and BMAP have also shown efficacy against zika virus and inhibition is through direct inactivation of the virus by the interruption and damage to the viral membrane but also, indirectly, via the inhibition of interferon signalling pathway Defensins are small cysteine-rich peptides, well known for their host defence and immune signalling activities.
They have been also recognised for their antiviral properties, reported in a number of papers , , In one example, neutrophil α-defensins have been shown, by Daher et al. Non-enveloped viruses, echovirus type 11 and reovirus type 3 have been also tested but seemed unaffected by the action of defensins.
The difference in susceptibility to inactivation between enveloped and naked viruses suggest the lipid envelope as an interaction site between the peptide and the virus. It was also noted that the effect of defensins on viral infection appears to be specific to the type of defensin peptide, virus and a target host cell.
In addition to the direct effect on the virus and the cell, defensins act as immune modulators that may play a role in viral transmission Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein, which has exhibited antiviral activity against a wide range of human and animal viruses both DNA and RNA , including hepatitis C HCV through the direct binding of the peptide to the HCV particles , HSV through inhibition of virus-host interactions, or through inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus HIV replication in host cell.
To other reported lactoferrin-affected viruses belong poliovirus , calicivirus , rotavirus and SARS coronavirus Lactoferrin prevents entry of virus in the host cell and its antiviral mechanisms vary among viruses, where it may bind either directly to the virus particle or to the host cell receptor or coreceptor , , Hepcidin, a amino-acid antimicrobial peptide LEAP-1 , is predominately expressed by liver hepatocytes and is the principal regulator of iron absorption The effects of hepcidin on the pathogenesis of viral infections is not well understood; however, expression of hepcidin has been reported following a number of human and murine viral infections It was postulated that hepcidin expression may be upregulated at later stages of infection when iron levels are elevated.
Increased hepcidin levels in HIV-1 positive plasma donors of both acute as well as transitioning to chronic infections were reported. HIV replication is iron-dependent and the hepcidin-induced sequestering of iron in cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages is a highly favourable condition for HIV pathogensis Rajanbabu et al.
The presence of TH decreased the number of plaques formed by the cytopathic effect of IPNV in the CHSE cells. In addition, the presence of hepcidine showed, further, modulation of interleukin, annexin and other viral-responsive gene expressions and, hence, demonstrated immunomodulatory functions.
There is a requirement to improve the delivery and stability of these peptides whilst retaining their functionality and a few strategies have been proposed. As an example, in the study by Zhang et al. In vitro antiviral activity of this nanoformulation against both HCV and HIV were retained.
In vivo incorporation was also able to decrease the viral load in mice transplanted with human lymphocytes and HIVinfected A subsequent study of using the same nanoformulation in a galactosylated form, was tested as liver-specific delivery system.
It exhibited prominent advantages to prevent HCV association with lipid droplets and was able to suppress the intracellular expression of HCV proteins in an in vitro assessment. In addition, in vivo assessment indicated preferential accumulation in the liver of the tested animals.
Another strategy to prevent protease degradation is to substitute L amino acids with D-amino acids. Jackman et al. The peptide showed promise in tackling Zika virus-infected mice, reducing viral load and inflammation in the brain. Subsequent study by Camargoes et al. Graphene is a two-dimensional layer of sp 2 -hybridised carbon atoms, arranged in a hexagonal lattice, that has demonstrated extraordinary properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity It is being used in commercial products, like nanocomposites and electronics.
This latter nanoscale particulate material can also be functionalised with different surface chemistries, leading to derivatives such as graphene oxide GO and reduced graphene oxide rGO , which have varying amounts of oxygen-containing functional groups attached to the basal plane GO has been shown to act as an antiviral agent, suppressing the infection of several different viruses, including pseudorabies, tomato bushy stunt virus, respiratory syncytial virus and HSV , , , The structure of the flakes, with their high surface-to-volume ratios and sharp edges, has proved destructive to viruses and their inherent negative charge has been attributed to the observed virucidal properties , , , In some cases, GO has been used in partnership with other known antiviral materials such as silver nanoparticles or sulfonated magnetic nanoparticles to achieve antiviral activity Easy chemical modification of GO and rGO with different functional groups that are already understood to have a detrimental effect on viruses, such as polyglycerol sulfate and beta-cyclodextrin, allows further improvement in antiviral properties.
While electrostatic interactions between polyglycerol sulfate and virus particles trigger the binding of graphene to viruses, preventing viral adhesion to the host cell, alkyl chains induce a high antiviral activity by secondary hydrophobic interactions However, these effects on viruses have only been demonstrated for GO flakes when used in assays, rather than on surfaces.
Graphene has been shown to have antimicrobial properties, with the reduction in Escherichia coli E. coli proven in different studies The physical interaction of different graphene derivatives graphite, graphite oxide, rGO and GO is understood to affect the cellular membrane integrity, metabolic processes and morphology of microorganisms However, it has also been demonstrated that different types of carbon-based 2D materials can have different effects on E.
coli , with some surfaces actually promoting the proliferation of the bacterium and the formation of a dense biofilms This confirms the issue that a lack of material characterisation can lead to very different performance of graphene-enhanced surfaces than expected. At the same time, commercially available face masks have now entered the market that are antibacterial and contain nanoscale graphitic flakes.
At the same time, these length scales were found to be harmless to larger mammalian cells. In contrast, a CVD graphene layer grown horizontally on the surface did not show the same antimicrobial properties. However, this is a rapidly developing field and CVD-grown graphene typically uses a copper catalyst surface for growth, with high coverage of single-layer graphene on a copper surface already achievable in industrial-scale, roll-to-roll processes , Graphene may therefore be a complementary addition to already successful copper surfaces, or polymers to enhance their antiviral properties.
Composites offer an attractive strategy in fabricating useful materials with antiviral properties. Combining different classes of materials or incorporating antiviral moieties, e. Silver nanoparticles AgNPs are known for their excellent antiviral properties.
However, differently to silver in its metal bulk form, using free AgNPs, due to their size and properties, poses several drawbacks such as particle aggregation, cytotoxicity or genotoxic damage by inhalation or ingestion into human body in larger quantities.
Park et al. They suggested that the major antiviral mechanism of this material was its interaction with the components present on the viral membrane. Martinez-Abad et al. studied the incorporation of 0. The PLA-silver films showed antibacterial and antiviral activity in vitro, with increasing effects at higher silver concentrations when tested against Salmonella and feline calicivirus.
Mori et al. The antiviral activity was evaluated from the decreased TCID 50 ratio of viral suspensions between composite-treated samples and controls. Composites with different sizes of AgNPs were tested and stronger antiviral activity was observed for smaller particles for comparable concentrations of incorporated AgNPs.
For all the tested particle sizes, the antiviral activity increased with increasing concentration of the particles in the composite. In another study with AgNPs composite , chitin nanofibers sheets CNFSs with immobilized AgNPs also showed antiviral efficacy against H1N1 influenza A virus.
Tyo et al. The composites were fabricated from polycaprolactone PCL fibres surrounding polyethylene oxide PEO fibres that incorporated methoxy poly ethylene glycol -b-poly lactide-co-glycolide mPEG-PLGA GRFT NPs.
The efficacy of GRFT NP-EFs was assessed using human immunodeficiency virus HIV-1 pseudovirus assays, demonstrating complete in vitro protection against HIV-1 infection.
Monmaturapoj et al. They speculated this composite as a promising material for use in antimicrobial filtration materials in e. medical face masks. In another study with titanium dioxide, Amirkhanov et al. In a study by Grover et al. Even though the test lacked testing on a broad virus spectrum, it shows the potential of perhydrolase acyl donor substrates, such as propylene glycol diacetate PGD , glyceryl triacetate or ethyl acetate, to engineer antiviral materials with potential use in antiviral paints in hospital to reduce the propagation of infection.
In Table 3 , we provide a summary of materials with antiviral properties with, where reported, the mechanisms of action and persistence.
Antiviral materials and coatings have very broad applications, from antiviral food packaging and food contact surfaces for controlling human enteric viruses , to health products for prevention of sexually transmitted infections to PPE in the healthcare sector. The applications dictate the different properties of materials.
For example, in food production and retail, the antiviral materials cannot be toxic Materials used in public transport need to be stable, durable and non-flammable. Here, we give an overview of practical applications of antiviral materials and coatings which are summarised in Table 4.
Example applications in the context of a hospital setting are illustrated in Fig. Four classes of surfaces are shown; a hard surfaces such as touch screens and door handles, b large area and infrastructure such as walls, floors and tables; c soft surfaces including textiles and ambulance interior and d PPE including masks, gloves, visors and coverings.
PPE is clearly a prime area of importance, to protect people from the risk of contact infection. As PPE includes facial masks or visors, protective suits, spill gowns, gloves, boot covers, goggles. etc, it requires compatibility with a wide range of materials from woven fabrics, used in masks, to disposable aprons.
However, generally the materials should be non-toxic and skin friendly. Masks and respirators are one of main application of antiviral materials since the primary transmission carriers for respiratory viruses are droplets and aerosols, which are released through a cough, sneeze or when speaking and even breathing.
During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, face masks and respirators are often mandated in public areas to limit the spread of infections The conventional type of face masks and respirators composed of woven or non-woven fabric block the virus by filtration of aerosols and droplets.
However, the virus persists on the surface 40 , which leads to a risk due to incorrect wearing of masks or their reuse. Research has focused on developing self-cleaning masks by using different materials and technologies , especially nano-based materials and techniques, some of which are already available or close to the market.
One popular strategy is incorporating antiviral nanoparticles into fibrous membranes of the mask or depositing an ultrathin nanoparticle layer on the respirators. Examples include copper oxide and silver nanoparticles incorporated into nanofiber membranes or the fabric of masks , Another way is to make masks superhydrophobic, so that virus-laden droplets would not be able to remain on the masks.
A possible approach is depositing a few layers of graphene onto commercial surgical masks Other super-hydrophobic materials, such as fluorinated polymers and metallic nanowires, have also the potential to be used in respiratory masks Antiviral compounds incorporated to other types of PPE, such as apron or gloves, would further reduce the risk of infection for health care workers.
Many antiviral materials, already used in masks and respirators, e. Some drawbacks of utilising metal ions or metallic nanoparticles in PPE or other everyday-use surfaces should be considered when designing, manufacturing and implementing the products.
Firstly, ion leaching can occur leading, eventually, to the loss of antiviral and antimicrobial properties of the material , Secondly, there is a potential risk to the environment that metallic nanoparticles can exert after being released from products with, for example, domestic or industrial wastewater , By incorporating daylight-active chemicals into rechargeable nanofibrous membranes RNMs , photoactive RNMs could act by releasing ROS to provide biocidal functions under dim light or dark conditions and store the biocidal activity under light irradiation, which could be potentially incorporated as a surface protective layer of PPE.
There have been many advances to improve the antibacterial properties of medical devices especially those that go into the wet or humid environment of the body e. catheters, tracheal and laryngeal tubes. Biopolymers and biocompatible polymer coatings could also be used to reduce viral transmission.
Another application of antiviral materials is the use of antiviral surfaces or surface coatings in public settings such as healthcare facilities or public transport system, to slow down the spread of virus through fomites. This application requires durable materials with long-term weeks or even months antiviral efficiency.
Similar to PPE, metal ions such as silver and copper are popular candidates for use in public areas. Deposition of silver clusters, through the photoreduction of a silver salt, directly on the surface could be implemented, e.
The coatings based on polymers, incorporating metallic nanoparticles or metal ions, could protect the metal from oxidation and corrosion and could also be engineered for slow release of metal ions, providing long-lasting antiviral properties. A non-release approach, enhancing the durability of antiviral coatings, was proposed by Haldar et al.
Some of the materials discussed in this review can be applied as a paint and these could be applied to a wide variety of surfaces from walls, doors and cabinets to equipment and other hard surfaces.
The ubiquitous touch screen is found everywhere, from personal mobile phones to medical equipment, and is notorious for harbouring bacteria and viruses. Many of the materials, such as copper, discussed in this review could be potentially used in thin-film coatings on glass surfaces.
Door handles, taps and other frequently touched hard surfaces could similarly benefit from metal coatings such as copper. An alternative way is to generate nanostructured topography on industrially relevant surfaces that can physically inactivate viruses.
Recently, Hasan et al. With excellent durability, this strategy could be potentially used in hospitals and other public areas. The aim of this review is to provide an overview and better understanding of the current state of knowledge, research direction and practices in the area of antiviral materials and coatings.
We focus on the reported mechanisms of action. The repertoire of materials with antiviral and antimicrobial properties is large and varied.
Adding to that further possibilities of design and engineering of new chemistries, provides many options. Antimicrobial properties of these materials are widely studied but reports on antiviral properties are much fewer and this is a gap that should be considered. As can be seen, there is a significant resource of existing literature on viral persistence on different surfaces.
However, a quantitative or even semi-quantitative analysis of the data is hampered by a lack of equivalence in the ways that persistence is measured or a consistent set of virus classes that are used to challenge the materials.
There are existing ISO, ASTM, US Federal and EU standards on the measurement of antiviral activity but a lack of use in the literature. The most frequently used method is the end point dilution assay TCID 50 , though as noted earlier, the results are often difficult to interpret and are subjective.
There appears to be a compelling need for systematic studies of different material types, challenged with specific virus strains of representative classes enveloped, non-enveloped etc. using quantitative approaches. Furthermore, a reference standard surface, that could be used in an intercomparison study, would greatly benefit the community by providing a base-line of repeatability within a lab and replicability between laboratories.
We believe that such studies would considerably increase the value and re-use of data created in future studies. Copper is one of the most effective and simplest of the materials in this review and would appear to be easily integrated, e.
Touch-screen displays could have thin films containing copper. However, increased exposure to copper would need careful consideration in terms of other health effects. Indeed, unwanted environmental effects caused by leaching may be one of the most significant issues to be considered in the deployment of antiviral surfaces.
Natural products may provide the right balance of antiviral efficacy and environmental impact. It is clear that material science can play a very important role in the development of conceptual and practical measures to slow infectious outbreaks.
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This work was supported by the National Centre for Research and Development in the frame of the M-ERA. NET program under Grant MERA. Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland. Faculty of Science and Technology, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Czestochowa, Poland.
CHIRMED-Manufacturer of Surgical and Medical Instruments, Rudniki, Poland. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Agnieszka Bigos. This manuscript presents original work that has not been published previously and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.
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Polyamide fibers with TiO 2 anatase and rutile were prepared by electrospinning, and antipathogenic, hydrophilic fibers were obtained Pant et al. Moreover, the addition of TiO 2 improved some properties like mechanical strength and UV blocking. The antipathogenic activity was evaluated against E.
coli under UV light, and inhibition of bacterial growth was shown. Karimi et al. The reduction against E. Like titania, zinc oxide ZnO has photocatalytic properties, which are essential for antipathogenic activity. ZnO comes in three phases: wurtzite, zinc blende, and rock salt.
Wurtzite is the most stable and common phase. El-Nahhal et al. In another work, El-Nahhal et al. The impregnation occurred by the sonochemical method using starch as an additive, and the potential against E.
aureus was evaluated. After 10 washes, the reduction dropped to aureus , respectively. Fiedot-Toboła et al. The matrix change had no direct influence on the antipathogenic action of ZnO; however, hydrophobic surfaces PA showed larger particle clusters than hydrophilic surfaces PP and PET.
Furthermore, magnetic particles can bind more strongly to the pathogen Harifi and Montazer Harifi and Montazer developed multifunctional fabrics based on polyester, with nanoparticles of either magnetite Fe 3 O 4 or hematite Fe 2 O 3 , which were synthesized in situ.
In addition to other properties, the antipathogenic effect of magnetite and hematite against S. Another multifunctional fabric was the subject of the study by Rastgoo et al.
The inactivation of the influenza virus by Fe 3 O 4 was compared to the performance of peroxidase and catalase enzymes. Magnetite was incorporated into facial masks in different concentrations 0. TCID 50 and hemagglutinin activities were measured, and levels were evaluated at 0.
The application with 0. The application of particles in fabrics can be made in several ways, along with the manufacturing process of fibers and textiles Schindler and Hauser ; Gao and Cranston Functionalized substances can be obtained through chemical and physical processes.
The antipathogenic agent is usually incorporated in the last processing stage of wet-processing, i. Alternatively, it is also possible to integrate the antipathogenic agents during the formation of the fibers, i.
General steps of fabrics production. Antipathogenic agents can be added to fiber preparation or finishing. Dip-coating, pad-dry-cure, and sonication are widely used methods, which consist of a direct application of a colloidal dispersion containing the particles, through the immersion of the tissue in the dispersion.
Details on each process are discussed below. Dip coating is a simple and easy method to apply but does not provide a uniform coating.
On the other side, this process can be used in fibers or fabrics and causes no damage or distortions to the fabric or fibers Joshi and Butola It consists of immersing the fabric in a suspension Fig.
Therefore, the materials antipathogenic agents are dispersed in solutions that will coat a surface fabric , then the fabric is put to dry.
Many parameters can influence the results, such as viscosity, immersion time, speed, surface tension, etc. Tang and Yan Dip coating was used by Kumar , in which a piece of cotton fabric was immersed in a suspension containing the silver particles for 1 h and then dried at °C.
Lin et al. The cotton textile was immersed in a dispersion containing DDS-SiO 2 particles in DMF for 5 min and dried at °C for 5 min to remove the solvent.
In pad-dry-cure Fig. After the immersion, the crosslinking reactant, catalyst, softener, and other components are dried on the fabric. Finally, a crosslinking reaction takes place during the curing step.
Hasan immersed cotton fabric in a solution containing CuO and binder for 5 min, then passed through a padding mangle. After drying naturally, it was cured for 3 min at °C. In general, this is a simple methodology and provides a uniform coating but requires the use of a binder.
Yadav et al. Kangwansupamonkon et al After this process, the cotton textile presents antimicrobial properties Kangwansupamonkon et al.
Cotton fabrics with antimicrobial, UV-protective, and self-cleaning properties were prepared by Onar et al. Then, they were dried at 80 °C for 30 min and cured at °C for 5 min.
The sonochemical coating is one of the best methods from the point of view of adhesion and uniformity, which enhances the durability and antipathogenic effect, but it is more expensive than the methods previously mentioned.
In this method, the fabric is submitted to sonication in a dispersion, then it is dried Fig. Perkas et al. The fabrics were then submitted to high-intensity ultrasound for 1 h, and finally washed and dried. This technique was also applied to the coating of cotton with CuO by Abramova et al.
The study presented by Abramov et al. To use this method is necessarily a solution, which contains copper acetate monohydrate, water, and ethanol. A cotton bandage was submitted to sonication, the temperature reached approximately 60 °C, and then dried under vacuum.
This technique was used by Petkova et al. The ultrasound was performed for 30 min, then the fabric was washed and dried. The textile presented antimicrobial properties. Spraying is another simple method, an easy application system, and this makes it possible to use it on several surfaces including fabrics.
The dispersion is forced through a nozzle, and an aerosol is formed and coats a surface Fig. The coated parameters are the concentration, spray time, diameter, nozzle pressure, and others. A reapplication is possible, but this can cause a non-homogeneous coating Joshi and Butola A spray can cover a non-woven surgical mask with copper nanoparticles, conferring an antimicrobial action and enabling the reuse of the mask Kumar et al.
Later, the antiviral action of silver against SARS-CoV-2 was verified. Latthe et al. The NPs were dispersed in hexane, sprayed in the textile, and then evaporated to obtain a hydrophobic surface.
After being sprayed, the cotton fabric was dried at room temperature. In this study, the author varied the spraying distance: in a short distance, a hydrophobic surface was obtained; in a long distance, a hydrophilic surface was achieved; and in a medium distance, one side was superhydrophobic and the other side, superhydrophilic.
Electrospinning can be explored to manufacture non-woven textiles Fig. It allows particles to be added to the solution, which provides functionality to the tissue, but this method has hindrances for application on a large scale.
Electrospinning offers suitable control of the structure and properties of the textile. To form an antipathogenic fabric, two different incorporation methodologies are generally adopted: either the functional particles are in the solution to be electrospun, or a dispersion containing functional particles is added to the fiber surfaces after electrospinning.
Tijing et al. First, a polyurethane and tourmaline solution was prepared in DMF. Then, the solution was electrospun to form a non-woven fabric, which presented antibacterial and superhydrophilic properties.
Hwang and Jeong investigated three different solutions containing poly vinyl pyrrolidone and AgNPs, varying the size of the nanoparticles.
The best results obtained an effective antimicrobial fiber against S. aureus, K. pneumoniae , and E.
A material with antibacterial, antiviral, and self-cleaning properties was fabricated by Karagoz et al. In this work, a DMF dispersion was prepared to contain ZnO nanorods, Triton X surfactant , PMMA, and AgNO 3. Using the electrospinning method, it was possible to construct nanofibers that can apply to protective clothing.
An example of the surface modification to turn functional is presented by Ranjbar-Mohammadi and Yousefi This process improved some properties allowing the use in a dye removal system. The antipathogenic action of particles or ions may be explained by different mechanisms. In some cases, particles adhere to the membrane by electrostatic forces, and in other cases, they break the membrane causing intracellular damage and suffering oxidative processes Rai et al.
In addition, particles can compete in the connection with the cells and break the pathogen cover Mehrbod et al. Some pathogens use the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 ACE2 receptor, which is present in cells in several human tissues.
Thus, the human receptor and the spike protein interact powerfully Fig. Some mechanisms regarded as responsible for the action against bacteria and viruses are summarized in Table 2. Some antipathogenic agents, such as metallic silver, have major mechanisms related to avoiding the connections between the proteins of the virus with the cellular receiver.
This occurs due to the destruction of proteins such as hemagglutinin and spike which includes the lipid layer that surrounds the virus. For the contamination to occur in host cells, it is necessary the interaction of the spike proteins with the ACE2 cellular receptor.
Therefore, with the antipathogenic agents, the interaction is blocked, preventing the entrance of the pathogens, Gao et al. According to Elechiguerra et al. Furthermore, Lara et al. As already mentioned, in other cases involving ions, the proteins and lipid layer deterioration, such as found in bacteria, viruses, and fungi, can be caused by reactive oxygen species ROS , as shown in Fig.
A Bacteria representation, B mechanism destruction in pathogens by reactive oxygen species ROS. To obtain functionalized fabrics it is important to follow some standards for measuring the antipathogenic activity, as detailed in Table 3.
The methods described evaluate the growth of the pathogen and are comparison tests between treated and untreated fabrics. Tests to evaluate the antibacterial properties generally include inhibition tests against Staphylococcus aureus gram-positive and Escherichia coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae gram-negative Simončič and Tomšič The most common and simple method uses a plaque with agar, which is infected with some bacteria containing a treated fabric and a control fabric.
After an incubation period, it is possible to identify the area where no bacterial growth has occurred Fig. The larger the area, the better the antibacterial effect. However, this test is more likely to be used with antibacterial leaching agents.
If it is a non-leaching agent, it is necessary to compare it to the control test. Another assay that can be used involves counting bacterial colonies in different incubation periods.
Since this is a more quantitative assay, the count can be done visually or using the adenosine triphosphate ATP method Pankaj Some tests are performed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration MIC to verify the antimicrobial activity.
They can be conducted in liquid or solid growth medium plates. MIC is defined as the lowest concentration of a substance that will inhibit the visible growth of a pathogen during a specific incubation period, i.
The plaque assay Fig. The virus previously contacted the functionalized fabric and the control fabric. Aliquots are added to plates containing a medium and cells. An incubation time is required for cell infection. After this period, the host cells are covered with a semi-solid substrate to prevent the virus from infecting other cells and to perform the count.
In the TCID 50 method, several dilutions are performed, and the concentrations of the pathogen are measured. Then, the infected cells are incubated for 7 days, enough for cytopathic effects CPE , which allows for analyzing the infected cells of each dilution.
By using a microscope and statistical methods, such as Behrens and Karber analysis, the concentration can be calculated. Other techniques can be used, such as immunofluorescence Foci Assay IFA , to quantify the virus concentration.
This method uses antibody-based staining substances and therefore can be employed in cases where plaque formation is not supported or does not have CPE Pankaj ; Krumm Alternatively, the polymerase chain reaction PCR enables the detection of the pathogens' nucleic acid.
In this case, a probe binds to a specific region of DNA and emits a detectable signal. RNA can also be detected as long as there is a reverse transcription from RNA to DNA RT-PCR Pankaj ; Krumm Finally, a hemagglutination assay is applied when pathogens contain several proteins that can bind and form agglutination of antibodies or red blood cells.
Thus, if the pathogen is present, agglutination occurs; otherwise, the result is negative Pankaj ; Krumm ; Lumen. Most of the methods to detect antifungal activity are visual. They are applied against Aspergillus niger and Chaetomium globosum and performed by inoculating the fungi on agar plates Simončič and Tomšič As reported in the antibacterial tests, the assays must contain a control with a fabric without an antipathogenic agent and another containing the functional fabric.
After an incubation time, it will be possible to check the fungal growth and the intensity of the medium in contact with the fabric.
Another method of antifungal determination is presented by ISO International Organization for Standardization , which consists of counting or ATP luminescence.
A suspension containing the fungus and the fabrics are incubated for a period, and then the activity is determined quantitatively. In this case, the antipathogenic activity is the major property that the tissue can exhibit. Nevertheless, a set of properties gives the fabric a unique performance, which allows varying the properties and consequently its application.
Mechanical properties, durability, breathability, electrostatic, and fire-retardant, among others, can be combined to produce the desired fabric. Fabrics can be incorporated with antipathogenic particles that have an adherence and fixation in the fibers, which can be shorter or longer. This treatment can be performed with binders such as dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea DMDHEU , polyurethane resin, and polyacrylic esters PALS , and also through pre-treatments involving bio and plasma technologies Zhang et al.
Zhang et al. After 20 washes, there was no significant change in the initially reported inhibition, which was greater than Another similar study evaluated the importance of using a binder for particle adhesion.
First, silver-coated cotton fabrics were tested against S. In the work presented by Ibrahim et al. This finishing with CA or SA improved the antipathogenic effect, besides helping in the fixation of the nanoparticles, which maintained their performance after 10 washes.
Ibrahim et al. reported in other works the use of enzymes, carboxymethylation and plasma as pre-treatment Abdel-Aziz et al. Salat et al.
In this work, a sonochemical coating was used, with a suspension containing ZnO, GA, and laccase. The laccase and GA form a polymer, fixing better ZnO.
Figure 14 shows the importance of activation promoted by laccase. Adapted from Salat et al. A Antibacterial activity of the fabrics sono-enzymatically coated with ZnO after multiple washes at 75 °C and B amount of ZnO remaining on the fabrics after multiple washes at 75 °C.
Another way that can modify the durability of the antipathogenic effect is through the technique used to incorporate the agents into the fabric. Firdhouse and Lalitha used dipping, and sonication methods to modify a cotton fabric.
Sonication offered a better uniformity and amount of antipathogenic agents. Consequently, this improved the antipathogenic effect compared to immersion. Some microorganisms cause deterioration effects in the fabrics, damaging them gradually and leading them to degradation. It is important to emphasize that this only slows down the degradation, increasing their durability, and does not contaminate the soil Teufel and Redl ; Malis et al.
Initially, the concentrations of binder and dispersant were preserved, and there was variation only in the concentration of ZnO. For the tensile strength and elongation test before burial, the application of ZnO increased the strength and elongation of the fabric in relation to the untreated textile.
The author believes that this is due to the small surface layers formed with the coating. After one week on the ground, the textiles were evaluated again, and there was a reduction in tensile strength and elongation. Still, a better result was obtained when compared to the fabric without ZnO.
After 2 weeks, the fabric composed only of cotton without coating was worn out, and the test could not be carried out. Therefore, the ZnO protected the fabric against the action of microbes, delaying the decomposition. When antipathogenic agents are incorporated into textiles, doubts have arisen about the degradation of mechanical properties, as many of these agents use ROS, and this mechanism could also affect the fabric.
In a recent paper, Tania and Ali carried out tests to evaluate some mechanical properties of fabric after the introduction of an antipathogenic agent. Using the pad dry cure, cotton was covered with ZnO nanoparticles to obtain a fabric with anti-pathogenic properties.
In this case, it was tested against E. Thus, ZnO reduces the tensile strength of cotton when used alone. However, when polyethylene wax emulsion was added, an improvement was observed due to a polymeric bonding.
For elongation and tearing strength tests, the results showed the same trend. One of the concerns about textiles that contain antipathogenic particles is the impact of leaching into the environment.
Some studies on antipathogenic agents have reported releasing of contaminants. As already mentioned, silver in contact with microorganisms can cause genetic changes and poses danger to natural and necessary microorganisms.
Graves et al. coli bacteria to AgNPs. The genomic analyses showed the bacterium evolution and the development of resistance to AgNPs, through successive mutations. Kaweeteerawat et al. aureus to a sublethal dose AgNPs, these microorganisms increased the resistance toward antibiotics ampicillin and Pen-Strep.
Furthermore, in the sample pretreated the membrane damage and oxidative stress decreased, suggesting AgNps can stimulate mutations. TiO 2 occurs in large quantities in wastewater, especially in sediments.
Because of its low solubility, it becomes more resistant Tourinho et al. When leached, titania nanoparticles can be released into aquatic environments and be harmful to organisms essential to the ecosystem. Valério et al. Acute sublethal effects were recorded in zebrafish embryos at different stages of development, related to the release of TiO 2 nanoparticles into the aquatic environment Fig.
Adapted from Valério et al. Structural defects, such as yolk deformations, pericardial edemas, arched tails, and others, can be observed in the developmental traits of zebrafish larvae induced by TiO 2. Other studies Andy et al. In comparison, iron oxide seems to present lower toxicity towards the bacteria Shewanella oneidensis.
Nevertheless, if necessary, prevention techniques can be incorporated into water treatment. In the case of silver, it can be absorbed by a fungus C.
violaceum Durán et al. In addition, if the fabrics have been modified, so their behavior will be different, which can delay their decomposition.
The natural degradation of fibers or textiles is caused by microorganisms, which can suffer from the antipathogenic effect of the agents. Tourinho et al. Of the compounds reported, TiO 2 was shown to be less toxic than Ag and ZnO against soil organisms such as Caenorhabditis elegans , Eisenia fétida , and Porcellio scaber.
In the soil, these agents can still influence the crops, as in the case of ZnO decreasing the germination and growth of some plants, and TiO 2 in high doses can be phytotoxic Andy et al.
When these compounds are available in the environment, consumption and contact with animals and humans are possible. Moreover, during the use of textiles, antipathogenic agents can pose risks to the user's skin and penetrate and damage cells Simončič and Tomšič For instance, Ingle et al.
However, it is worth noting that a high concentration of metal ions or nanoparticles is required to cause problems in humans. Furthermore, as mentioned, it is possible to increase the fixation of the particles to the fabric, making the release more difficult and reducing the environmental impact.
Since the mids, there have been patent applications for woven or non-woven fibers and textiles with antipathogenic properties antifungal or antimicrobial. In these applications, several antipathogenic agents have been exploited, such as silver, silver nitrate, copper, copper oxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, polyphenol, chitosan, triclosan, and carbon nanotubes, among others.
These textiles can be applied in clothing, protective equipment such as masks, gloves, aprons, health care items, households, and similar. Lau et al. Two patents focusing on attractive applications were published recently Gabbay , In a case, after the harvest, fruits such as strawberries, are susceptible to attacks by microorganisms, so the idea of developing a polymeric fabric with antimicrobial and antiviral properties for food packaging came up.
The polymeric blend was investigated in three situations against HIV-1, 1 Polymeric Fiber without CuO and Cu 2 O. The antibacterial and antifungal tests exhibited an inhibitory zone, indicating the effect of biocide. Another application for commercial use was presented by Sahin et al.
The invention is based on woven or non-woven fabrics with antipathogenic, and hydrophilic properties, for sanitary pads, bladder pads, tampons, and diapers.
The development of microorganisms is favorable due to the conditions of use, so this technology can prevent diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
The application of antipathogenic fabrics is not limited to just one property. Other properties, such as UV blocking, self-cleaning, hydrophobicity, and others, can be obtained and combined.
This raises the expectation of growth, added to the high demand for antipathogenic materials. Moreover, the problems with particle leaching can be controlled through different methodologies used, minimizing impacts on the environment.
Textile functionalization can be promising for fibers and textiles, as the current demand for antipathogenic products is expected to increase in the coming years. Metal oxides and metals present stability and compatibility and are widely in demand due to their antipathogenic potential.
Various types of fabrics and processing techniques can be combined to produce antipathogenic woven or non-woven textiles. Thus, a wide variety of fabrics can be manufactured with the desired properties for each application.
Finisues rails, door handles, seats—these are all Antipxthogenic in public surfacf that Antipathogenic surface finishes spread viruses with so many people ginishes them as cinishes Antipathogenic surface finishes their daily Anti-cancer events. Distinguished Antipathlgenic and Cabot Professor Laura Dinishes, chemical engineering, jointly appointed Nutritious cooking oils mechanical and industrial engineering, was awarded a National Science Foundation RAPID grant to mitigate this problem. Cuprous oxide is reported as a highly effective antimicrobial compound. While the origin of its antimicrobial property remains unknown, it is hypothesized to be a consequence of atomic-level copper vacancies in its crystal lattice that provide highly charged atomic environments. Lewis notes that one potential consequence of current widespread hand sanitizer usage is antibiotic-resistant bacteria; however, she is hopeful that these studies will quickly lead to materials design recipes strategies, methods, prescriptions, rules to develop solutions for public spaces. The growing finjshes of carsharing and the Antipahogenic pandemic has increased demand for antipathogenic components in vehicle interiors. Circadian rhythm sleep quality, there Emotional well-being techniques Antopathogenic growing demand Ahtipathogenic protective wear with eurface features. As a result, Autoliv seeks Fniishes ways Antipathogenic surface finishes make steering Emotional well-being techniques, seat belt components, and hip protector equipment antipathogenic without compromising high performance or safety requirements. Autoliv already produces steering wheels with antibacterial surfaces but would like to explore resistance to other pathogens and expand to different product segments. The aim is to find novel solutions to help make hip protectors, steering wheels, seatbelt plastics, and textile components antipathogenic. This includes resistance against bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. We are open to new materials, coatings, or surface treatment methods as long as product safety and component requirements are not compromised.
Antipathogenic surface finishes -
coli and S. aureus after 50 washes. Sharma et al. coli , respectively. As in the previous study, the antipathogenic action was evaluated after 50 washes, but, in this case, no binder was added. An N95 mask with impregnated copper oxide was designed with 4 layers, one of which was a functional layer.
Furthermore, several mask parameters were tested, such as bacterial filtration efficacy, differential pressure, and resistance to penetration; in all cases, the performance was satisfactory Borkow et al.
Shahid et al. developed multifunctional textiles from the incorporation of copper oxide particles, Cu 2 O. In this work, the particles were synthesized with different reducing agents, which influenced the final antipathogenic potential of each sample.
From the three reducing agents, glucose, ascorbic acid and sodium hydrosulphite, the particles produced through the last agent obtained better results in the inhibition of E. aureus Shahid et al. The bactericidal potential of copper oxide against S.
coli was investigated by El-Nahhal et al. In this case, CuO nanoparticles were deposited on cotton fibers, and the antipathogenic action demonstrated complete growth inhibition.
Vasantharaj et al. After synthesis, a piece of impregnated cotton fabric was qualitatively tested against bacteria E. coli , S. aureus , and K. pneumoniae with satisfactory results.
Studies have also reported the antipathogen activity of titanium dioxide titania, TiO 2 , which has a well-known photocatalytic activity. When irradiated, TiO 2 produces radicals that help in the antipathogen action. Titania comes in three phases: anatase, rutile, and brookite. As anatase, it presents better photocatalytic performance.
Moreover, some studies report the activity in the dark Galkina et al. The antimicrobial activity of facial masks containing titanium dioxide and silver nitrate coating was analyzed against E. aureus was observed Li et al. Galkina et al. BTCA was used to ensure a better uniformity in the modification of the fiber structure.
The modified cotton was evaluated against E. Prorokova et al. aureus , and C. albicans , respectively. Polyamide fibers with TiO 2 anatase and rutile were prepared by electrospinning, and antipathogenic, hydrophilic fibers were obtained Pant et al.
Moreover, the addition of TiO 2 improved some properties like mechanical strength and UV blocking. The antipathogenic activity was evaluated against E.
coli under UV light, and inhibition of bacterial growth was shown. Karimi et al. The reduction against E. Like titania, zinc oxide ZnO has photocatalytic properties, which are essential for antipathogenic activity.
ZnO comes in three phases: wurtzite, zinc blende, and rock salt. Wurtzite is the most stable and common phase. El-Nahhal et al. In another work, El-Nahhal et al. The impregnation occurred by the sonochemical method using starch as an additive, and the potential against E.
aureus was evaluated. After 10 washes, the reduction dropped to aureus , respectively. Fiedot-Toboła et al. The matrix change had no direct influence on the antipathogenic action of ZnO; however, hydrophobic surfaces PA showed larger particle clusters than hydrophilic surfaces PP and PET.
Furthermore, magnetic particles can bind more strongly to the pathogen Harifi and Montazer Harifi and Montazer developed multifunctional fabrics based on polyester, with nanoparticles of either magnetite Fe 3 O 4 or hematite Fe 2 O 3 , which were synthesized in situ.
In addition to other properties, the antipathogenic effect of magnetite and hematite against S. Another multifunctional fabric was the subject of the study by Rastgoo et al.
The inactivation of the influenza virus by Fe 3 O 4 was compared to the performance of peroxidase and catalase enzymes. Magnetite was incorporated into facial masks in different concentrations 0.
TCID 50 and hemagglutinin activities were measured, and levels were evaluated at 0. The application with 0. The application of particles in fabrics can be made in several ways, along with the manufacturing process of fibers and textiles Schindler and Hauser ; Gao and Cranston Functionalized substances can be obtained through chemical and physical processes.
The antipathogenic agent is usually incorporated in the last processing stage of wet-processing, i. Alternatively, it is also possible to integrate the antipathogenic agents during the formation of the fibers, i.
General steps of fabrics production. Antipathogenic agents can be added to fiber preparation or finishing. Dip-coating, pad-dry-cure, and sonication are widely used methods, which consist of a direct application of a colloidal dispersion containing the particles, through the immersion of the tissue in the dispersion.
Details on each process are discussed below. Dip coating is a simple and easy method to apply but does not provide a uniform coating.
On the other side, this process can be used in fibers or fabrics and causes no damage or distortions to the fabric or fibers Joshi and Butola It consists of immersing the fabric in a suspension Fig.
Therefore, the materials antipathogenic agents are dispersed in solutions that will coat a surface fabric , then the fabric is put to dry. Many parameters can influence the results, such as viscosity, immersion time, speed, surface tension, etc.
Tang and Yan Dip coating was used by Kumar , in which a piece of cotton fabric was immersed in a suspension containing the silver particles for 1 h and then dried at °C. Lin et al. The cotton textile was immersed in a dispersion containing DDS-SiO 2 particles in DMF for 5 min and dried at °C for 5 min to remove the solvent.
In pad-dry-cure Fig. After the immersion, the crosslinking reactant, catalyst, softener, and other components are dried on the fabric. Finally, a crosslinking reaction takes place during the curing step. Hasan immersed cotton fabric in a solution containing CuO and binder for 5 min, then passed through a padding mangle.
After drying naturally, it was cured for 3 min at °C. In general, this is a simple methodology and provides a uniform coating but requires the use of a binder. Yadav et al. Kangwansupamonkon et al After this process, the cotton textile presents antimicrobial properties Kangwansupamonkon et al.
Cotton fabrics with antimicrobial, UV-protective, and self-cleaning properties were prepared by Onar et al. Then, they were dried at 80 °C for 30 min and cured at °C for 5 min.
The sonochemical coating is one of the best methods from the point of view of adhesion and uniformity, which enhances the durability and antipathogenic effect, but it is more expensive than the methods previously mentioned. In this method, the fabric is submitted to sonication in a dispersion, then it is dried Fig.
Perkas et al. The fabrics were then submitted to high-intensity ultrasound for 1 h, and finally washed and dried. This technique was also applied to the coating of cotton with CuO by Abramova et al. The study presented by Abramov et al. To use this method is necessarily a solution, which contains copper acetate monohydrate, water, and ethanol.
A cotton bandage was submitted to sonication, the temperature reached approximately 60 °C, and then dried under vacuum. This technique was used by Petkova et al. The ultrasound was performed for 30 min, then the fabric was washed and dried. The textile presented antimicrobial properties.
Spraying is another simple method, an easy application system, and this makes it possible to use it on several surfaces including fabrics. The dispersion is forced through a nozzle, and an aerosol is formed and coats a surface Fig. The coated parameters are the concentration, spray time, diameter, nozzle pressure, and others.
A reapplication is possible, but this can cause a non-homogeneous coating Joshi and Butola A spray can cover a non-woven surgical mask with copper nanoparticles, conferring an antimicrobial action and enabling the reuse of the mask Kumar et al.
Later, the antiviral action of silver against SARS-CoV-2 was verified. Latthe et al. The NPs were dispersed in hexane, sprayed in the textile, and then evaporated to obtain a hydrophobic surface. After being sprayed, the cotton fabric was dried at room temperature.
In this study, the author varied the spraying distance: in a short distance, a hydrophobic surface was obtained; in a long distance, a hydrophilic surface was achieved; and in a medium distance, one side was superhydrophobic and the other side, superhydrophilic.
Electrospinning can be explored to manufacture non-woven textiles Fig. It allows particles to be added to the solution, which provides functionality to the tissue, but this method has hindrances for application on a large scale. Electrospinning offers suitable control of the structure and properties of the textile.
To form an antipathogenic fabric, two different incorporation methodologies are generally adopted: either the functional particles are in the solution to be electrospun, or a dispersion containing functional particles is added to the fiber surfaces after electrospinning.
Tijing et al. First, a polyurethane and tourmaline solution was prepared in DMF. Then, the solution was electrospun to form a non-woven fabric, which presented antibacterial and superhydrophilic properties. Hwang and Jeong investigated three different solutions containing poly vinyl pyrrolidone and AgNPs, varying the size of the nanoparticles.
The best results obtained an effective antimicrobial fiber against S. aureus, K. pneumoniae , and E. A material with antibacterial, antiviral, and self-cleaning properties was fabricated by Karagoz et al.
In this work, a DMF dispersion was prepared to contain ZnO nanorods, Triton X surfactant , PMMA, and AgNO 3. Using the electrospinning method, it was possible to construct nanofibers that can apply to protective clothing. An example of the surface modification to turn functional is presented by Ranjbar-Mohammadi and Yousefi This process improved some properties allowing the use in a dye removal system.
The antipathogenic action of particles or ions may be explained by different mechanisms. In some cases, particles adhere to the membrane by electrostatic forces, and in other cases, they break the membrane causing intracellular damage and suffering oxidative processes Rai et al. In addition, particles can compete in the connection with the cells and break the pathogen cover Mehrbod et al.
Some pathogens use the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 ACE2 receptor, which is present in cells in several human tissues. Thus, the human receptor and the spike protein interact powerfully Fig. Some mechanisms regarded as responsible for the action against bacteria and viruses are summarized in Table 2.
Some antipathogenic agents, such as metallic silver, have major mechanisms related to avoiding the connections between the proteins of the virus with the cellular receiver.
This occurs due to the destruction of proteins such as hemagglutinin and spike which includes the lipid layer that surrounds the virus. For the contamination to occur in host cells, it is necessary the interaction of the spike proteins with the ACE2 cellular receptor.
Therefore, with the antipathogenic agents, the interaction is blocked, preventing the entrance of the pathogens, Gao et al. According to Elechiguerra et al. Furthermore, Lara et al. As already mentioned, in other cases involving ions, the proteins and lipid layer deterioration, such as found in bacteria, viruses, and fungi, can be caused by reactive oxygen species ROS , as shown in Fig.
A Bacteria representation, B mechanism destruction in pathogens by reactive oxygen species ROS. To obtain functionalized fabrics it is important to follow some standards for measuring the antipathogenic activity, as detailed in Table 3. The methods described evaluate the growth of the pathogen and are comparison tests between treated and untreated fabrics.
Tests to evaluate the antibacterial properties generally include inhibition tests against Staphylococcus aureus gram-positive and Escherichia coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae gram-negative Simončič and Tomšič The most common and simple method uses a plaque with agar, which is infected with some bacteria containing a treated fabric and a control fabric.
After an incubation period, it is possible to identify the area where no bacterial growth has occurred Fig. The larger the area, the better the antibacterial effect. However, this test is more likely to be used with antibacterial leaching agents. If it is a non-leaching agent, it is necessary to compare it to the control test.
Another assay that can be used involves counting bacterial colonies in different incubation periods. Since this is a more quantitative assay, the count can be done visually or using the adenosine triphosphate ATP method Pankaj Some tests are performed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration MIC to verify the antimicrobial activity.
They can be conducted in liquid or solid growth medium plates. MIC is defined as the lowest concentration of a substance that will inhibit the visible growth of a pathogen during a specific incubation period, i.
The plaque assay Fig. The virus previously contacted the functionalized fabric and the control fabric. Aliquots are added to plates containing a medium and cells. An incubation time is required for cell infection.
After this period, the host cells are covered with a semi-solid substrate to prevent the virus from infecting other cells and to perform the count.
In the TCID 50 method, several dilutions are performed, and the concentrations of the pathogen are measured. Then, the infected cells are incubated for 7 days, enough for cytopathic effects CPE , which allows for analyzing the infected cells of each dilution.
By using a microscope and statistical methods, such as Behrens and Karber analysis, the concentration can be calculated. Other techniques can be used, such as immunofluorescence Foci Assay IFA , to quantify the virus concentration. This method uses antibody-based staining substances and therefore can be employed in cases where plaque formation is not supported or does not have CPE Pankaj ; Krumm Alternatively, the polymerase chain reaction PCR enables the detection of the pathogens' nucleic acid.
In this case, a probe binds to a specific region of DNA and emits a detectable signal. RNA can also be detected as long as there is a reverse transcription from RNA to DNA RT-PCR Pankaj ; Krumm Finally, a hemagglutination assay is applied when pathogens contain several proteins that can bind and form agglutination of antibodies or red blood cells.
Thus, if the pathogen is present, agglutination occurs; otherwise, the result is negative Pankaj ; Krumm ; Lumen. Most of the methods to detect antifungal activity are visual. They are applied against Aspergillus niger and Chaetomium globosum and performed by inoculating the fungi on agar plates Simončič and Tomšič As reported in the antibacterial tests, the assays must contain a control with a fabric without an antipathogenic agent and another containing the functional fabric.
After an incubation time, it will be possible to check the fungal growth and the intensity of the medium in contact with the fabric. Another method of antifungal determination is presented by ISO International Organization for Standardization , which consists of counting or ATP luminescence.
A suspension containing the fungus and the fabrics are incubated for a period, and then the activity is determined quantitatively. In this case, the antipathogenic activity is the major property that the tissue can exhibit.
Nevertheless, a set of properties gives the fabric a unique performance, which allows varying the properties and consequently its application. Mechanical properties, durability, breathability, electrostatic, and fire-retardant, among others, can be combined to produce the desired fabric. Fabrics can be incorporated with antipathogenic particles that have an adherence and fixation in the fibers, which can be shorter or longer.
This treatment can be performed with binders such as dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea DMDHEU , polyurethane resin, and polyacrylic esters PALS , and also through pre-treatments involving bio and plasma technologies Zhang et al.
Zhang et al. After 20 washes, there was no significant change in the initially reported inhibition, which was greater than Another similar study evaluated the importance of using a binder for particle adhesion.
First, silver-coated cotton fabrics were tested against S. In the work presented by Ibrahim et al. This finishing with CA or SA improved the antipathogenic effect, besides helping in the fixation of the nanoparticles, which maintained their performance after 10 washes.
Ibrahim et al. reported in other works the use of enzymes, carboxymethylation and plasma as pre-treatment Abdel-Aziz et al. Salat et al. In this work, a sonochemical coating was used, with a suspension containing ZnO, GA, and laccase.
The laccase and GA form a polymer, fixing better ZnO. Figure 14 shows the importance of activation promoted by laccase. Adapted from Salat et al. A Antibacterial activity of the fabrics sono-enzymatically coated with ZnO after multiple washes at 75 °C and B amount of ZnO remaining on the fabrics after multiple washes at 75 °C.
Another way that can modify the durability of the antipathogenic effect is through the technique used to incorporate the agents into the fabric.
Firdhouse and Lalitha used dipping, and sonication methods to modify a cotton fabric. Sonication offered a better uniformity and amount of antipathogenic agents. Consequently, this improved the antipathogenic effect compared to immersion. Some microorganisms cause deterioration effects in the fabrics, damaging them gradually and leading them to degradation.
It is important to emphasize that this only slows down the degradation, increasing their durability, and does not contaminate the soil Teufel and Redl ; Malis et al. Initially, the concentrations of binder and dispersant were preserved, and there was variation only in the concentration of ZnO.
For the tensile strength and elongation test before burial, the application of ZnO increased the strength and elongation of the fabric in relation to the untreated textile. The author believes that this is due to the small surface layers formed with the coating.
After one week on the ground, the textiles were evaluated again, and there was a reduction in tensile strength and elongation. Still, a better result was obtained when compared to the fabric without ZnO.
After 2 weeks, the fabric composed only of cotton without coating was worn out, and the test could not be carried out. Therefore, the ZnO protected the fabric against the action of microbes, delaying the decomposition. When antipathogenic agents are incorporated into textiles, doubts have arisen about the degradation of mechanical properties, as many of these agents use ROS, and this mechanism could also affect the fabric.
In a recent paper, Tania and Ali carried out tests to evaluate some mechanical properties of fabric after the introduction of an antipathogenic agent. Using the pad dry cure, cotton was covered with ZnO nanoparticles to obtain a fabric with anti-pathogenic properties.
In this case, it was tested against E. Thus, ZnO reduces the tensile strength of cotton when used alone. However, when polyethylene wax emulsion was added, an improvement was observed due to a polymeric bonding.
For elongation and tearing strength tests, the results showed the same trend. One of the concerns about textiles that contain antipathogenic particles is the impact of leaching into the environment. Some studies on antipathogenic agents have reported releasing of contaminants.
As already mentioned, silver in contact with microorganisms can cause genetic changes and poses danger to natural and necessary microorganisms. Graves et al. coli bacteria to AgNPs. The genomic analyses showed the bacterium evolution and the development of resistance to AgNPs, through successive mutations.
Kaweeteerawat et al. aureus to a sublethal dose AgNPs, these microorganisms increased the resistance toward antibiotics ampicillin and Pen-Strep. Furthermore, in the sample pretreated the membrane damage and oxidative stress decreased, suggesting AgNps can stimulate mutations.
TiO 2 occurs in large quantities in wastewater, especially in sediments. Because of its low solubility, it becomes more resistant Tourinho et al. When leached, titania nanoparticles can be released into aquatic environments and be harmful to organisms essential to the ecosystem.
Valério et al. Acute sublethal effects were recorded in zebrafish embryos at different stages of development, related to the release of TiO 2 nanoparticles into the aquatic environment Fig. Adapted from Valério et al. Structural defects, such as yolk deformations, pericardial edemas, arched tails, and others, can be observed in the developmental traits of zebrafish larvae induced by TiO 2.
Other studies Andy et al. In comparison, iron oxide seems to present lower toxicity towards the bacteria Shewanella oneidensis. Nevertheless, if necessary, prevention techniques can be incorporated into water treatment.
In the case of silver, it can be absorbed by a fungus C. violaceum Durán et al. In addition, if the fabrics have been modified, so their behavior will be different, which can delay their decomposition. The natural degradation of fibers or textiles is caused by microorganisms, which can suffer from the antipathogenic effect of the agents.
Tourinho et al. Of the compounds reported, TiO 2 was shown to be less toxic than Ag and ZnO against soil organisms such as Caenorhabditis elegans , Eisenia fétida , and Porcellio scaber. In the soil, these agents can still influence the crops, as in the case of ZnO decreasing the germination and growth of some plants, and TiO 2 in high doses can be phytotoxic Andy et al.
When these compounds are available in the environment, consumption and contact with animals and humans are possible. Moreover, during the use of textiles, antipathogenic agents can pose risks to the user's skin and penetrate and damage cells Simončič and Tomšič For instance, Ingle et al.
However, it is worth noting that a high concentration of metal ions or nanoparticles is required to cause problems in humans. Furthermore, as mentioned, it is possible to increase the fixation of the particles to the fabric, making the release more difficult and reducing the environmental impact.
Since the mids, there have been patent applications for woven or non-woven fibers and textiles with antipathogenic properties antifungal or antimicrobial.
In these applications, several antipathogenic agents have been exploited, such as silver, silver nitrate, copper, copper oxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, polyphenol, chitosan, triclosan, and carbon nanotubes, among others.
These textiles can be applied in clothing, protective equipment such as masks, gloves, aprons, health care items, households, and similar.
Lau et al. Two patents focusing on attractive applications were published recently Gabbay , In a case, after the harvest, fruits such as strawberries, are susceptible to attacks by microorganisms, so the idea of developing a polymeric fabric with antimicrobial and antiviral properties for food packaging came up.
The polymeric blend was investigated in three situations against HIV-1, 1 Polymeric Fiber without CuO and Cu 2 O. The antibacterial and antifungal tests exhibited an inhibitory zone, indicating the effect of biocide.
Another application for commercial use was presented by Sahin et al. The invention is based on woven or non-woven fabrics with antipathogenic, and hydrophilic properties, for sanitary pads, bladder pads, tampons, and diapers. The development of microorganisms is favorable due to the conditions of use, so this technology can prevent diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
The application of antipathogenic fabrics is not limited to just one property. Other properties, such as UV blocking, self-cleaning, hydrophobicity, and others, can be obtained and combined. This raises the expectation of growth, added to the high demand for antipathogenic materials.
Moreover, the problems with particle leaching can be controlled through different methodologies used, minimizing impacts on the environment. Textile functionalization can be promising for fibers and textiles, as the current demand for antipathogenic products is expected to increase in the coming years.
Metal oxides and metals present stability and compatibility and are widely in demand due to their antipathogenic potential. Various types of fabrics and processing techniques can be combined to produce antipathogenic woven or non-woven textiles. Thus, a wide variety of fabrics can be manufactured with the desired properties for each application.
Cellulose fabrics provide biodegradability and are more eco-friendly, the versatility and properties of this fabric lead to large production and consumption. However, it is important to choose processing techniques that optimize the antipathogenic agents' fixation in the fabric.
Some compounds can favor resistance to substances used in the medicinal environment. The incorporation of agents during finishing can impair fixation.
Studies have shown that sonochemical techniques offer better adhesion than dip-coating, for instance. If possible, agents should be incorporated during fiber formation, offering better fixation and consequently less leaching to the environment, and the use of binders should be considered. There is a growing demand for antipathogen tissues, and the variety of agents and tissues leads to diverse applications, thus increasing their use even more.
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Download references. This work forms part of the 3D OrbiSIMS project in the Life-science and Health programme of the National Measurement System of the UK Department of Business, Energy and Industrial strategy.
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, UK. Paulina D. Rakowska, Mariavitalia Tiddia, Nilofar Faruqui, Claire Bankier, Yiwen Pei, Andrew J. National Biofilms Innovation Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, UK.
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Finisshes Emotional well-being techniques are an important group Bone health and phosphorus decorative-protective materials characterised by high corrosion Anitpathogenic, excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, finoshes lately gained cinishes significance due to their Antipathogenic surface finishes activity. The main aim of the presented research Emotional well-being techniques Antipathogenci Antipathogenic surface finishes homogenous copper Antipathogenicc from the non-cyanide electrolyte solution in galvanostatic conditions on steel 1. The effect of substrate finishes used in the production line, by shot peening with glass balls, corundum treatment and brushing on the coatings surface formation, was investigated. The copper layers adhere to both substrates, except those deposited on a brushed surface. Regardless of the substrate used, they have a nanocrystalline structure with an average crystallite size of 30 nm. Moreover, the coating surface morphology, which affects the nature of interaction with microorganisms, was effectively modified by the appropriate substrate finishing without changing the electrodeposition conditions.
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