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There's a reason blueberries are nutirtion touted as a "superfood. A study presented at the American Isotonic energy boosters Society meeting in San Ajd showed healht is evidence of nutritionn flavonoids in lung tissue a few Respieatory after consumption," says Andrews.
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Apples are rich Goal achievement strategies a phytonutrient called quercetin, which "has been clinically shown to be beneficial Resipratory the lungs ," says New Healt registered dietitian Rewpiratory ElnaharRD. Quercetin has also been linked to better pulmonary function in people who smoke and have emphysema, and may reduce the overall effects of cigarette smoke.
Regular apple consumption has also been associated with increased scores on two measures of lung capacity—forced expiratory volume and forced vital capacity. All apples offer some health benefits, so choose your favorite variety and enjoy it as a snack, baked into oatmeal or added to a salad for a sweet crunch.
Need inspiration? Try our Apple Cranberry Salad with Goat Cheese. Tomatoes are an excellent source of a carotenoid called lycopene, which "has been shown to reduce airway inflammation," says Balsamo.
A study at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health showed that adults who ate two tomatoes per day were able to show less lung decline compared to those who ate less than one tomato daily.
Tomatoes are also a great source of vitamin C, which has been shown to reduce inflammation in autoimmune diseases. While tomatoes in any form are good for lung health, it's been shown that our bodies can absorb lycopene from tomatoes better when they are cooked. So, aim to eat a mix of fresh when in season and cooked tomatoes.
Making sure you're getting enough vitamin D is paramount to helping optimize your lung function. They also contain beta-glucans that reduce inflammation in the body, says Li.
Recipe pictured above: Grilled Chicken with Red Pepper-Pecan Romesco Sauce. One meta-analysis of 21 studies showed that vitamin C may have a protective effect against lung cancer. Other research has linked pepper consumption with reduced risk of COPD. Crunch on red peppers with hummus or your favorite dip for a snack, add them to a salad, stir-fry or pasta dish, or try our Vegetarian Stuffed Peppers.
All beans—black, red, white, garbanzo—are chock-full of nutrients that can support overall health, including your lung health.
Preliminary animal studies indicate that changes in gut flora are linked with pulmonary arterial hypertension," says Andrews. While more research is needed on the exact relationship in humans, other research suggests promising benefits as well.
One study showed that high-fiber diets were associated with better lung function, and low-fiber diets were linked to reduced lung function. In addition, a review of plant-based diets suggests that beans may help reduce risk of lung cancer among other cancers.
If you don't regularly eat beans, start by adding them to a soup, stew or pasta dish as a start. Or check out some of our favorite healthy bean recipes. Salmon is full of essential amino acids, which the body uses to make proteins in order to absorb nutrients and repair body tissue, among other things.
Two other important nutrients for lung health that salmon contains are omega-3 fatty acids to decrease inflammation in the body and vitamin D to improve respiratory muscle strength. It's also high in fats and protein and low in carbs, Connolly adds. This may help some people with COPD breathe better, because carbs produce the most amount of carbon dioxide.
Recipe pictured above: Citrus Vinaigrette. Besides being rich in omega-3 and protein an important nutrient for maintaining strong respiratory muscleseggs contain vitamin A, an antioxidant that works in the body to repair damaged cells and grow normal ones.
Leafy greens, like spinach and kale, are packed with antioxidants vitamins A, C and E and phytochemicals carotenoids that may help lower inflammation. This could be because carotenoids are thought to protect cells and play a role in blocking the early stages of cancer. Andrews adds that leafy greens are also a solid source of sulforaphane, a compound with antioxidant properties.
There's a compound found in broccoli, called sulforaphanethat "increases the expression activity of a gene found in lung cells that protects the lungs from damage caused by toxins," says Elnahar.
This damage could come from things like environmental pollution or smoking. Broccoli, along with other cruciferous veggies like kale and Brussels sprouts, contains a significant amount of vitamin C. What you eat can play a role in lung health. Most plant foods offer some benefits, so level up on those, while limiting your consumption of red meat and processed foods.
And don't forget that overall lifestyle matters—don't smoke, exercise regularly, get enough quality sleep per night and try to keep stress in check. Lastly, while food and lifestyle play an important role in both prevention and treatment, if you have a lung condition, they don't replace medication.
Work closely with your health care team to create a medical plan that is best for you. Sarah Anzlovar is a registered dietitian and owner of a virtual private practice, where she helps busy women ditch diets and learn to eat to feel their best without the stress. In her free time, you can find her in the kitchen trying new recipes, perusing a farmers' market, on a run or chasing after her toddler and golden retriever.
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Measure content performance. Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources. Develop and improve services. Use limited data to select content. List of Partners vendors. Healthy Eating Best Healthy Foods. By Krissy Brady is an Ontario-based freelance writer who specializes in health and wellness articles.
Krissy Brady. EatingWell's Editorial Guidelines. Reviewed by Dietitian Victoria Seaver, M. Victoria Seaver is a registered dietitian and Associate Editorial Director for EatingWell.
She completed her undergraduate degree in nutrition, dietetics and food science and her masters degree and dietetic internship at the University of Vermont.
Victoria has been a part of the EatingWell. com team since Trending Videos. Health Benefits of Mushrooms. Health Benefits of Eggs. Updated by Sarah Anzlovar is a registered dietitian and owner of a virtual private practice, where she helps busy women ditch diets and learn to eat to feel their best without the stress.
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: Respiratory health and nutrition| Does Nutrition Affect Lung Health? | Patients who have a history of, for example, lung cancer or emphysema, use a lot of extra energy to breathe, and as their condition progresses, they continue to work even harder. So, to prevent these patients from losing weight, we focus on nutrition. This is especially important for patients preparing for treatment like chemotherapy or immunotherapy where common side effects are loss of appetite or nausea. Data shows that losing weight when combating cancer leads to poor outcomes, mainly because patients are working harder to breathe, and are more susceptible to infections. So, even though they may not have much of an appetite, we want to make sure our patients are eating enough. A lot of respiratory illnesses are related not only to the underlying lung function but even more related to the amount of muscle strength they're required to exert because of the disease. For example, patients with emphysema are not using their diaphragm as effectively, so they must use other muscles to make up for the work of breathing. That is why it is absolutely essential for these patients to be on a daily vitamin. Secondly, a protein rich diet is encouraged because patients need to build that extra muscle. There are other issues for chronic lung patients, like those with emphysema or asthma, if their underlying disease is not controlled. They tend to lose weight because they're metabolizing more fat, more muscle because they're working so hard. We try and push a good balance of fruits, vegetables, and carbohydrates, but what is even more crucial for lung disease patients is protein rich meals because it helps develop more muscle. When lung health patients gain more abdominal weight, it can, in turn push down on their chest. This causes more restriction or more pressure on the chest wall making it harder to take bigger breaths. It's a really fine balance and that's why we suggest protein rich foods, because it's not going to add empty pounds and allows patients to continue exercising. So that is why we also encourage patients to work with a nutritionist to help them maintain this delicate balance. Your other health care providers can also be great resources as they have experience working with similar patients and can advise you on what has worked for others with similar diagnoses. Join over , people who receive the latest news about lung health, including research, lung disease, air quality, quitting tobacco, inspiring stories and more! One study showed that high-fiber diets were associated with better lung function, and low-fiber diets were linked to reduced lung function. In addition, a review of plant-based diets suggests that beans may help reduce risk of lung cancer among other cancers. If you don't regularly eat beans, start by adding them to a soup, stew or pasta dish as a start. Or check out some of our favorite healthy bean recipes. Salmon is full of essential amino acids, which the body uses to make proteins in order to absorb nutrients and repair body tissue, among other things. Two other important nutrients for lung health that salmon contains are omega-3 fatty acids to decrease inflammation in the body and vitamin D to improve respiratory muscle strength. It's also high in fats and protein and low in carbs, Connolly adds. This may help some people with COPD breathe better, because carbs produce the most amount of carbon dioxide. Recipe pictured above: Citrus Vinaigrette. Besides being rich in omega-3 and protein an important nutrient for maintaining strong respiratory muscles , eggs contain vitamin A, an antioxidant that works in the body to repair damaged cells and grow normal ones. Leafy greens, like spinach and kale, are packed with antioxidants vitamins A, C and E and phytochemicals carotenoids that may help lower inflammation. This could be because carotenoids are thought to protect cells and play a role in blocking the early stages of cancer. Andrews adds that leafy greens are also a solid source of sulforaphane, a compound with antioxidant properties. There's a compound found in broccoli, called sulforaphane , that "increases the expression activity of a gene found in lung cells that protects the lungs from damage caused by toxins," says Elnahar. This damage could come from things like environmental pollution or smoking. Broccoli, along with other cruciferous veggies like kale and Brussels sprouts, contains a significant amount of vitamin C. What you eat can play a role in lung health. Most plant foods offer some benefits, so level up on those, while limiting your consumption of red meat and processed foods. And don't forget that overall lifestyle matters—don't smoke, exercise regularly, get enough quality sleep per night and try to keep stress in check. Lastly, while food and lifestyle play an important role in both prevention and treatment, if you have a lung condition, they don't replace medication. Work closely with your health care team to create a medical plan that is best for you. Sarah Anzlovar is a registered dietitian and owner of a virtual private practice, where she helps busy women ditch diets and learn to eat to feel their best without the stress. In her free time, you can find her in the kitchen trying new recipes, perusing a farmers' market, on a run or chasing after her toddler and golden retriever. Use limited data to select advertising. Create profiles for personalised advertising. Use profiles to select personalised advertising. Create profiles to personalise content. Use profiles to select personalised content. Measure advertising performance. Measure content performance. Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources. Develop and improve services. Use limited data to select content. List of Partners vendors. High intake of fresh fruit and some vegetables appears to have a beneficial effect on lung health and their consumption should be recommended on a daily basis. Supplementation of vitamin C and other antioxidants could be proposed in subjects with additional oxidative stress challenge, such as exposure to high levels of air pollution. Subjects with impaired immune response could also benefit from vitamin A and zinc supplementation. Further studies are needed to determine the impact of diet on the incidence and evolution of lung diseases. |
| A diet for healthier lungs and a healthier planet - Pathways | Climate Change & Planetary Health | Holtzman MJ. Consuming tomato Rexpiratory has nytrition Diabetic-friendly smoothie recipes nugrition reduce Diabetic-friendly smoothie recipes inflammation in people with asthma Rwspiratory improve Chamomile Essential Oil function in people with COPD Our Brussels office enterprise number is A resveratrol and polyphenol preparation suppresses oxidative and inflammatory stress response to a high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal. Chicago Selby, Karen. In general, chronic diseases are caused by chronic inflammation; therefore, flavonoids have been proposed as potentially useful treatments for inflammatory diseases. Nat Commun. |
| Related Stories | African Mango seed triglyceride levels Respiratory health and nutrition evolutionarily conserved viral restriction factors. How much fluid should Respirtory drink? Inhibition of nutritino markers in primary bone marrow-derived mouse macrophages nutritlon Respiratory health and nutrition occurring flavonoids: analysis of the structure-activity relationship. There are other drink options that can be included in a healthy diet, such as milk, tea or coffee but these should be consumed in moderation. Those who eat five or more apples per week were also at a reduced risk of developing COPD. |
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Our Brussels office enterprise number is European Lung Foundation. Diet and nutrition Most lung conditions are caused by an interaction between genetic and environmental factors such as smoking, pollution and diet.
Being either obese or underweight can both have harmful consequences for lung health. Content Table. How does diet affect different lung conditions?
Asthma Different foods and nutrients can have an impact on the development and progression of asthma. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD There is growing evidence that some elements of the diet may benefit lung function or improve COPD symptoms.
Cystic Fibrosis Researchers have found that under-nutrition can play a key role in cystic fibrosis CF. Lung infections Deaths among people who are severely malnourished are often due to pneumonia and a low level of vitamin D is a recognised risk factor for the development of respiratory infections.
Pulmonary embolism People who are obese have an increased risk of pulmonary embolism, in which clots block one or more blood vessels in the lung. Top tips for healthy lungs. Although the effects of diet need further study, it is clear that the following can help to maintain good lung health: High intake of fruit, vegetables and fish Low salt intake Restricted intake of trans-fats and omega-6 fatty acids Maintenance of a body mass index BMI between 21 and 30 Moderate exercise Eating foods rich in antioxidants Eating foods rich in magnesium, such as nuts, cereals, seeds, carrots, spinach and seafood Eating oily fish, shellfish, soy and leafy vegetables to ensure intake of essential omega-3 fatty acid.
Lung conditions Learn about the conditions that can affect our lungs and access our lung condition specific information.
Read more. Living with a lung condition Learn more about life with a lung condition and things you can do to improve your quality of life. Keeping lungs healthy Learn about the factors that can cause lung disease and the ways to reduce your contact with them.
Get involved We work hard to involve patients and the public in research, have your say. News Read clear, short summaries of the most up-to-date research in lung health.
For example, caffeine acts as a vasodilator, meaning it helps open blood vessels, and it may help reduce symptoms in people with asthma, at least in the short term Additionally, a review of 15 studies found that long-term coffee intake was associated with positive effects on lung function and a reduced risk of asthma Magnesium helps protect against inflammation, and it helps bronchioles — tiny airways inside your lungs — stay relaxed, preventing airway restriction Higher magnesium intake has been associated with better lung function in a number of studies.
Additionally, many studies have linked greater intake of leafy green vegetables like Swiss chard to a reduced risk of lung cancer and COPD 10 , High fiber diets rich in whole grains have been shown to have a protective effect on lung function and may reduce the risk of mortality from lung-related diseases 10 , The antioxidants found in whole grains like flavonoids and vitamin E also promote lung health and protect against cellular damage Anchovies are tiny fish that are packed with anti-inflammatory omega-3 fats , as well as other lung-health-promoting nutrients like selenium, calcium, and iron Eating omegarich fish like anchovies may be particularly beneficial for people with inflammatory lung diseases like COPD.
A study found that a higher intake of omega-3 fats was associated with reduced COPD symptoms and improved lung function Lentils are high in many nutrients that help support lung function, including magnesium, iron, copper, and potassium The Mediterranean diet, which has been associated with promoting lung health, is high in legumes like lentils.
Research has shown that following a Mediterranean dietary pattern can preserve lung function in people who smoke. Plus, eating fiber-rich lentils may help protect against lung cancer and COPD 54 , Cocoa and cacao products like dark chocolate are high in flavonoid antioxidants and contain a compound called theobromine, which helps relax the airways in the lungs Cocoa intake has been associated with a lower risk of allergic respiratory symptoms and may help protect against lung cancer 57 , Additionally, a study that included 55, people found that those with higher flavonoid consumption from foods, including chocolate products, had better lung function than people who had diets low in flavonoids Consuming a diet high in nutritious foods and beverages is a smart way to support and protect lung health.
Coffee, dark leafy greens, fatty fish, peppers, tomatoes, olive oil, oysters, blueberries, and pumpkin are just some examples of foods and drinks that have been shown to benefit lung function. Try incorporating a few of the foods and beverages listed above into your diet to help support the health of your lungs.
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Zinc supplementation improves immune functions, including reduced skin hypersensitivity and an increased number of TCD4 cells 87 , The altered proportion of Th1 and Th2 cells in favor of allergic reactions induced by Th2 cells is a consequence of zinc deficiency; therefore, zinc plays an important role in the proper differentiation of T cells.
In addition, tolerogenic immunoreaction is triggered by changes in intracellular zinc levels due to the induction of Treg cells and the damping of proinflammatory Th17 and Th9 cells In experimental models, zinc deficiency has been shown to impair cellular and humoral immune function , , whereas, the zinc transporter 10 ZIP10 is necessary for adequate antibody responses after B-cell receptor BCR activation In the context of viral infections, it has been reported that zinc is able to inhibit the RNA polymerase necessary for the replication of RNA viruses, indicating that zinc may play an essential role in the defense of the host against RNA viruses The replication of influenza virus was inhibited in vitro by the zinc ionophore pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate In mechanistic terms, the strong correlation between homeostatic iron concentrations and the presence of oxygen in the lungs is evident, where both systems must be adequately controlled for full lung function.
Oxygen to be transported efficiently by erythrocytes depends on the presence of hemoglobin, a protein capable of binding oxygen through its central iron atom In addition to participation in hemoglobin synthesis, iron is of great importance for other essential metabolic processes, such as DNA repair, transcription and energy production in mitochondria.
However, free iron is highly reactive and potentially toxic and is able to catalyze the production of reactive oxygen species ROS and damage lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins, causing tissue damage For this reason, iron is mostly linked to protein groups to neutralize its reactivity.
Therefore, like any other cell, lung cells must acquire adequate amounts of iron to supply metabolic needs and to ensure lung function and survival. In parallel, lung cells must avoid excess iron, oxidative stress and resulting injuries that can impair lung function Growing evidence suggests that natural polyphenols, particularly flavonoids, can ameliorate the inflammatory process Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds broadly present in plants According to their structures and the hydroxylation and glycosylation patterns of benzene rings, flavonoids can be present in different subclasses, which include flavanols, flavanones, flavones, isoflavones, flavonols, and anthocyanidins These bioactive compounds are particularly abundant in the human diet of fruits, vegetables, tea, red wine, chocolate, and coffee However, their considerable structural diversity and in vivo bioavailability allow them to modulate different signaling pathways The immunomodulatory properties of flavonoids are associated with the inhibition of protein kinases, enzymes involved in arachidonic acid metabolism and the regulation of key signaling pathways, such as NF-κB and nuclear-related factor 2 Nrf2 — Additionally, they have antioxidant effects due to their scavenging activity for reactive oxygen or nitrogen species and by a reduction in oxidative stress , Some flavonoids also exert anti-inflammatory effects by blocking the NLRP3 inflammasome, inhibiting proinflammatory cytokine production, and downregulating chemokines — Flavonoids are reported to possess a wide variety of biological activities on immune cells, modulating their activation, differentiation and proliferation, and they can act on neutrophils, T cells, NK cells, DCs, and macrophages by reducing the expression of proteins and receptors 69 , 70 , In this context, eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells and basophils are also affected by flavonoids, which inhibit degranulation and decrease the release of histamine and other mediators 71 , 72 , In addition, the improvement of the immune response is associated with antibody production, cytotoxic activity, and enhancement in regulatory T cells Some studies point to the antiviral properties of flavonoids against a wide range of DNA and RNA viruses.
For example, apigenin flavone is active against picornavirus RNA virus , inhibiting viral activity 92 ; catechin flavanol reduces the replication cycle of the hepatitis B virus, herpes simplex and adenovirus 93 ; naringenin flavanone has antiviral activity against dengue, Zika, hepatitis C, chikungunya, yellow fever, and human immunodeficiency virus In addition, flavonoids were found to reduce lung injury and the inflammatory response during influenza H1N1 infection in a mouse model Recently, flavonoids have also been proposed against coronavirus infection 69 , There are strong evidences that concerns the role of flavonoids in several pulmonary diseases through decreased release of inflammatory mediators, fibrotic factors, and edema, and the attenuation of Th17 inflammation and suppression of airway hyperresponsiveness 69 , 72 , Furthermore, flavonoid supplementation is also effective in reducing the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections In general, chronic diseases are caused by chronic inflammation; therefore, flavonoids have been proposed as potentially useful treatments for inflammatory diseases.
Dietary fibers are defined as the edible parts of plants or analogous carbohydrates. They are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine and are completely or partially fermented in the large intestine.
Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and associated plant substances. Studies indicate that fiber intake can reduce the risk of COPD due its anti-inflammatory effect, since systemic inflammation is an important feature of COPD Increased dietary fiber intake has been linked to reduced systemic inflammation and C-reactive protein CRP levels Considering that CRP is a marker of systemic inflammation activated by the innate immune system and a possible molecule associated with vascular disease , it is possible that its action is related to lung damage.
Dietary fibers can also modify the intestinal microbiota, especially interfering with the ratio between Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. As a result, there is an increase in short-chain fatty acids that are derived from the fermentation of dietary fibers.
These fatty acids have relevant protection in the regulation of neutrophils, lung function and COPD, and epithelial protection against infection Most of the lipid mediators that regulate inflammation are metabolites from omega-6 ω-6 or omega-3 ω-3 fatty acids, including arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.
ω-3 and ω-6 are considered essential fatty acids, as the body is not able to produce them, and their acquisition through diet is necessary Most vegetable oils are significant sources of ω-6, while cold-water marine fish are the main sources of ω-3 Generally, ω-6 fatty acids are proinflammatory, and ω-3 fatty acids are anti-inflammatory Epidemiological data describe that populations with a higher intake of ω-6 fatty acids have a higher prevalence of asthma in relation to those that consume smaller amounts of ω-6 and with a higher intake of ω-3 fatty acids, considering that ω-3 produces ecosystems that are less proinflammatory than those derived from ω-6 , Food supplementation with fish oil rich in ω-3 fatty acids for 10 months was able to reduce asthma scores and increase acetylcholine thresholds in children with bronchial asthma In other studies, the administration of fish oil prevented only allergen-induced late asthmatic reactions and had no effect on immediate reactions In a murine model, ω-3 supplementation improved survival, reduced bacterial invasion into the blood and lungs, and decreased overall lung tissue inflammation and cell death compared to ωsupplemented diets Another fatty acid described in lung protection is short-chain fatty acids SCFAs.
SCFAs are derived from the fermentation of fibers by means of intestinal bacteria and are essential to regulate a wide variety of processes in the gastrointestinal tract, but they are also potent mediators of the function, maturation, and destiny of immune cells Oral application of SCFAs to mice during pregnancy and weaning protected the offspring from allergic lung inflammation, potentially inducing Tregs in the offspring's lungs SCFAs such as acetate and butyrate, in addition to their anti-inflammatory activity , also play an important role in infectious diseases.
Galvão et al. showed that the absence of the receptor for acetate GPR43 increased susceptibility to Klebsiella pneumoniae infection, with uncontrolled proliferation of bacteria and an inflammatory response.
On the other hand, treatment with acetate was efficient for protection during bacterial lung infection Against RSV infection, acetate also protects host mice through GPR43 via another mechanism. In RSV infection, the antiviral effect is caused by increasing the expression of interferon-stimulated genes in the lungs, leading to the production of IFN-β cytokine In a murine model, it was also seen that SCFAs were able to promote the recruitment of neutrophils into the airways and to protect against infection from the influenza virus The microbiota is a constituted by the microbial commensal communities includes bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa that reside in different tissues, especially in gut Its functions range from breaking down complex dietary polysaccharides to competing with pathogens and modulating the mucosa and the development of the immune system, both locally and systematically , However, some studies demonstrate that the nutritional status, since childhood, impacts not only in the immune response and homeostasis but also in the intestinal microbiota, evidencing another way in which nutrition can impact mucosal immunity Regarding pulmonary health and maintenance of homeostasis, experimental evidence has highlighted a cross between the intestinal microbiota and the lungs, called the intestine-lung axis 5.
Thus, the intestinal microbiota, influenced by nutrition, plays an important role in the immune responses developed during infections and inflammatory lung diseases. Below we will describe some aspects regarding the intestine-lung axis in two subsections: gut and airway microbiota.
With a bacterial load on the order of 10 14 bacteria the intestine is the most densely colonized surface of the human body, home to between , and billion bacteria per ml of luminal content The microorganisms present in the intestinal microbiota act as a source of PAMPs that, when recognized by PRRs as TLRs, are in direct contact with the intestinal lumen and promote the proliferation of epithelial cells, expression of antimicrobial peptides and secretion of IgA In addition, the gut microbiota can influence host immunity by inducing the release of anti-inflammatory IL , and proinflammatory IFN-γ, IL, IL-6, and IL cytokines , releasing metabolites — , and controlling the function of phagocytes, including DCs The diversity of the intestinal microbiome has genetically determined variations, but it is also influenced by environmental factors, such as lifestyle and diet For example, variations in the intake of resistant starch or non-starch polysaccharides have been reported to alter specific bacterial-rate levels, such as Ruminococcus bromii and Eubacterium rectal , just as the composition of the intestinal microbiota in breastfed babies superior bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, staphylococci, and streptococci differs considerably from formula-fed babies Bacteroides, Clostridia , and Proteobacteria Regarding obesity, the high consumption of ultra-processed foods, in addition to causing a state of micronutrient deficiencies, may be related to dysbiosis, demonstrating the importance of diet in maintaining a healthy microbiota Dysbiosis in gut microbiota can impair immune responses and pulmonary homeostasis.
In this context, studies in germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice have contributed to the understanding of the relationship between intestinal microbiota and local and systemic homeostasis Fecal transplantation in these animals, thereby reconstituting their microbiota, was able to restore intestinal immunity, influence the development of the mucosal systemic immune system and protect against bacterial and viral infections An experimental model of dysbiosis induced by antibiotic ingestion decreased effector and memory T cell populations in mice infected by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , since dysbiosis affected the activation of innate receptor macrophage inducible C-type lectin mincle of lung DCs.
After the microbiota is restored, DC's ability to activate T cells is also restored. In addition, dysbiosis present in obesity can also be related to changes in the immune response during lung infections On the other hand, promote a healthy gut microbiota is important against pulmonary infections.
Study with microbiota transplantation in gut microbiota-depleted mice infected intranasally with S. pneumoniae , showed that microbiota was able to control bacterial dissemination and inflammation The transplantation of isolated group of host-adapted commensal organisms, such as Segmented filamentous bacteria SFB , also play an important role in lung infections without the need for transplantation of all components of the gut microbiota.
pneumoniae showed that the transplantation of SFB influenced lung protection, not for controlling bacterial infection, but for regulating innate immunity In this study, the SFB promoted a shift in lung neutrophil phenotype from inflammatory neutrophils to pro-resolution neutrophils with low CD18 and high CD62L reducing, this way, the severe tissue damage caused by inflammatory neutrophils.
So, the gut microbiota can also act by decreasing the inflammatory response, reducing the tissue damage caused by the immune response. Besides that, epidemiological studies have described a correlation between changes in the intestinal microbiota and susceptibility to the development of airway allergies.
A reduction in the microbial variety in the intestine during childhood has been shown to increase the risk of developing asthma and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics may increase the predisposition to allergic airway diseases thus demonstrating the correlation in the intestine-lung axis.
The respiratory tract, long considered sterile, is actually a dynamic, microbial ecosystem. Unlike the intestinal microbiota, the lower respiratory tract is one of the least populated sites by microorganisms in the human body, with an approximate number of 10— bacteria per 1, cells Its composition is dependent on microbial colonization of the upper respiratory tract through salivary micro-inhalations, interactions with the host's immune system and environmental conditions such as pH and oxygen concentration The intestine and lungs develop in parallel after birth, with constant communication between these two compartments with the bacterial phyla most common in the lower respiratory tract being the same as those in the intestine, mainly Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, followed by Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria On the other hand, the nasal microbiota is more similar to skin microbiota, with a prevalence of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria phyla 48 , The mesenteric lymphatic system is an important communication route between the intestine and the lungs, through which intact bacteria, their fragments or metabolites can translocate through the intestinal barrier, reach the circulatory system, and modulate the lung's immune response For example SCFAs, which are mainly synthesized through the fermentation of bacterial dietary fibers, act in the lungs as signaling molecules in cells presenting resident antigens, thereby reducing inflammatory and allergic responses However, the gut-lung cross-talk also can influence in the opposite way, when the lung infections or chronic inflammatory diseases induce alterations in gut microbiota.
Chronic lung disorders, such as asthma and COPD, can exhibit not only dysbiosis in airway microbiota but also in gut microbiota with tissue damage In addition, respiratory influenza infections in mice indirectly induce intestinal immune injury and gut dysbiosis promoting inflammation through the outgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae and the reduction of Lactobacilli and Lactococci Still during mice influenza infection, changes in gut microbiota composition, reduce the acetate production and affect the bactericidal activity of alveolar macrophages contributing to pulmonary pneumococcal superinfection.
However, it has been shown that intranasal administration of Lactobacillus casei may be able to protect and mitigate the symptoms from influenza virus infection in neonatal and infant mice infected. Intranasal Bifidobacterium longum administration also protects against viral-induced lung inflammation and injury in murine model of influenza virus infection In this study, the reduced viral load was associated with reduced lung injury and IL-6 inflammatory cytokine, besides a shift from neutrophil to macrophage recruitment and increased levels of IFN-λ and surfactant protein.
The intranasal administration probiotics has also been used in inflammatory lung diseases. A study with 24 patients with chronic rhinosinusitis showed benefits with of Lactococcus lactis W bacteria i ntranasal irrigation after 14 days, with increase of the Dolosigranulum pigrum , a bacteria identified as potentially beneficial in the upper airways Another study in a mouse model of allergic asthma reported that intranasal administration of probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG prevents the development of asthma due to decrease in bronchoalveolar lavage the eosinophils cells, lung IL-5 and 13 levels, and airway hyperreactivity This way, modifications in airway microbiota can contribute to protection against infections and inflammatory lung diseases.
Together, these data show the importance of gut-lung cross-talk in maintaining pulmonary mucosa homeostasis, as well as in the immune response against pathogens and the development of inflammatory diseases. Epigenetics is the transcriptional regulation of gene expression carried out by chemical changes in DNA, such as methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, and regulation by miRNAs microRNA , which result in phenotypic changes without promoting changes in the DNA sequence , Transcriptional changes by acetylation are mediated by histone deacetylases HDACs and histone acetyltransferases HATs.
The deacetylation of histone lysine residues mediated by HDACs makes chromatin transcriptionally repressive, interfering with gene expression by inhibiting the access of transcription factors , HAT-mediated histone acetylation makes chromatin transcriptionally permissive, thus favoring the binding of transcription factors and other transcriptional coactivators , In addition to histones, HDACs have other protein substrates, such as NF-κB.
Sirtuin I SIRT1 , a class III HDAC, in addition to acting on histones, also acts on NF-κB, promoting deacetylation of the p65 subunit. Therefore, SIRT1 acts to suppress the transcription of proinflammatory cytokines HDAC and HAT activity has already been identified in nuclear extracts from lung-tissue specimens.
Moreover, it has been reported that patients with COPD have a progressive reduction in total HDAC activity, reflecting the severity of the disease HDACs are key molecules in suppressing the production of proinflammatory cytokines; they are understood to be an important component that can act on lung health.
Bioactive compounds may play roles in the regulation of HDAC activity and histone acetylation Bioactive compounds are extranutritional constituents that are usually present in food in small concentrations and provide health benefits beyond basic nutritional value These bioactive molecules can have therapeutic potential by influencing energy intake, in addition to reducing the proinflammatory state, oxidative stress and metabolic disorders Epidemiological studies suggest that the increase in consumption of foods rich in bioactive compounds with antioxidant activity, such as vitamins, phytochemicals, and especially phenolic compounds, may represent an important factor in the reduction of several pathologies, such as cancer, heart disease, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease Resveratrol is a polyphenolic bioactive compound found in several plant species, including grapes and peanuts, and is able to positively regulate SIRT1 in human pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells, reduce the production of ROS and inhibit apoptosis in alveolar epithelial cells, thus reducing lung injury It has also been reported that SIRT1 activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator PGC -1α, an important regulator of mitochondrial metabolism.
Therefore, resveratrol can improve mitochondrial function, which is usually compromised in the lungs of patients with COPD In the context of viral infections, in vitro studies have indicated that treatment with a SIRT1 antagonist EX generates an increase in the production of influenza viruses and human cytomegalovirus HCMV infection, while SIRT1 agonists promote a reduction in the production of viral particles Studies have also indicated a potential role for SIRT1 in regulating inflammation during allergic asthma due to significant inhibition of IL-6 expression However, most of the proposed therapeutic activities of resveratrol have not yet been confirmed in clinical trials.
There are reports that in healthy individuals, a single dose of resveratrol mg combined with muscadine grape extract polyphenols 75 mg is able to suppress the oxidative and inflammatory response to stress However, more studies are needed. Another bioactive compound, diferuloylmethane, is also capable of inducing epigenetic regulation and contributing to lung health.
Known as curcumin or turmeric from India, this compound has a pleiotropic role, interacting with several molecular targets, such as transcription factors, proteins and enzymes associated with epigenetic modulations Therefore, it promotes the suppression of histone acetylation and simultaneously promotes active activation to HDAC2 deacetylation, canceling the interaction between NF-κB and DNA; thus, preventing inflammatory responses that may be harmful to lung tissue Considering that corticosteroids recruit HDAC2 as one of the mechanisms of action, it has been suggested that its induction through curcumin may be an important therapeutic target Curcumin also has direct anti-inflammatory actions through the inhibition of inhibition of IκB kinase IKK , which degrades κB, a molecule capable of degrading the inhibitory protein of the NF-κB complex In the context of viral infections, it has been reported that curcumin can provide protection against acute lung injuries induced by H1N1 infection by limiting the expansion of immune cells and reducing the production of proinflammatory cytokines via NF-κB The safe dose of curcumin is 12 grams per day; however, there are few clinical studies that have shown that ingesting curcumin can have anti-inflammatory effects, considering that one of its main disadvantages is its low bioavailability and hydrophobic nature Another compound that can influence lung health includes catechins.
Catechins are among the biologically active compounds present in Camellia sinensis , known as green tea, and they are tea's main antioxidant agent. The catechins contained in tea include epigallocatechingallate EGCG , epicatechingallate ECG , epigallocatechin EGC , and epicatechin EC Among these, EGCG is the catechin that most demonstrates therapeutic effects.
EGCG is shown to be a specific inhibitor of HAT, thus influencing histone acetylation and promoting an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the Pmediated acetylation of NK-κB.
Moreover, it is also able to prevent the binding of p Its anti-inflammatory effect is mediated by inhibition of pmediated acetylation with the NK-κB promoter It is described that ingestion through catechin feeding is able to improve lung health and to reduce shortness of breath and sputum in COPD However, further studies are needed to evaluate the most safe and effective dosage.
SARS-CoV-2 quickly spread around the world in , and has been classified as a global pandemic by the World Health Organization This virus is the etiologic agent of coronavirus disease COVID which presents, in general, mild, and moderate symptoms, but a more severe manifestation can cause acute respiratory syndrome, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and can lead to death , Indeed, a little over a year and a half after the first case of the disease, more than Taking into account the anti-inflammatory and immunoprotective role that nutrients play in the pulmonary mucosa already discussed in the course of this review, it is not absurd to think that nutrients can be used as an important strategy against SARS-CoV-2 infection Figure 3.
Indeed, some studies, mostly using vitamins and antioxidant nutrients or demonstrating their deficiencies, have already shown some effect during COVID, as we describe below.
Figure 3. Possible role of nutrients in COVID pulmonary pathophysiology. Some nutrients have been proposed during COVID A Naringenin has been described as being able to inhibit infection SARS-CoV-2 infection.
B Vitamins, minerals, and flavonoids can inhibit viral replication in many pulmonary infections, and naringenin already demonstrated ability to decrease viral replication of SARS-CoV C These nutrients also have antioxidant role inhibition of reactive oxygen species—ROS and D anti-inflammatory activity inhibition of transcription proinflammatory factors transcription and may inhibit the deleterious effects of the cytokine storm and tissue damage present in COVID In addition, vitamin D demonstrated a relevant role on glucose-treated monocytes, lowering the risk of oxidative stress and the release of IL-8 and CCL-2 by monocytes.
This can be relevant since diabetes is considered a risk factor in COVID patients, in addition to the fact that monocytes glycolysis is a mechanism used by SARS-CoV-2 to promote inhibition of T cells and tissue damage in the lungs.
Perhaps the most prominent vitamin in this context is vitamin D. Many studies have already identified that there is a high incidence of vitamin D deficiency in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection — In addition, these studies have also shown a relationship between the level of vitamin D deficiency and the severity of COVID There have been many hypotheses suggested for this relationship, since the anti-inflammatory capacity of vitamin D is very important in a pathology characterized by a proinflammatory cytokine storm that worsens the patient's clinical condition until the possibility of affecting the need for oxygen-support therapy in patients with COVID This deficiency is also related to the risk of mortality from the disease In an in vitro study with high glucose-treated monocytes, combined supplementation with vitamin D and l-cysteine was effective in lowering the risk of oxidative stress and the release of IL-8 and C—C motif chemokine ligand 2 CCL-2 by monocytes This can be relevant in patients with type 2 diabetes and COVID infection, since diabetes is considered a risk factor Moreover, it was recently demonstrated that monocytes play an important role in COVID pathogenicity, since SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers mitochondrial ROS production in monocytes and promotes glycolysis, inhibiting the T cell response and epithelial-cell survival in the lungs Thus, the ability of vitamin D to suppress glucose-treated monocytes can be very important during SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Vitamins A, C and E have also demonstrated some importance in the prognosis of patients with COVID, since their deficiencies have been reported, especially in the most severe COVID patients Possibly, the antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity exerted by these nutrients must be impaired in those patients whose vitamin deficiency is more pronounced.
In this way, vitamin supplementation in these patients is strongly suggested Another kind of nutrient deficiency in COVID patients is minerals with antioxidant activity, such as selenium, zinc, magnesium, and copper , which are essential in controlling the oxidative stress induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Among flavonoids, naringenin has been shown to be a powerful inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro decreasing viral replication in Vero E6 lineage cells, demonstrating an important role in the control of viral load.
In this way, naringenin can be a possible component in the treatment of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. All of these data show that nutrients, in general, play an important role in the control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, which can be used as treatment strategies that may reduce the length of hospital stays and the need for respiratory support in these patients.
However, more studies need to be carried out to better define the role that each nutrient may have in COVID prognosis, given the vast anti-inflammatory and antiviral action that each nutrient can exert on the lung environment and the immune system in general.
The nutrients addressed in this review, in addition to their nutritional role, have a relevant role in maintaining lung health; therefore, adequate consumption of these nutrients is essential to promote an efficient immune response in the control of inflammatory diseases and infections.
Moreover, the in vitro use of some nutrients with antiviral activity has been shown to be efficient against SARS-CoV-2 infections, which highlights the importance of these components in the current moment of the pandemic that we are facing.
SG-S and LO performed conception, and write and review. FT performed conception, write, and illustration and review.
MS performed conception and review. AD performed review. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Nurition researchers are Diabetic-friendly smoothie recipes a secret weapon in the fight Colon cleanse for detoxification air pollution: Respiratory health and nutrition Each nuyrition, respiratory illnesses are Respigatory the leading causes of hospitalization and premature Diabetic-friendly smoothie recipes in Canada and across the globe. And those numbers are growing as temperatures rise and air pollution levels shift. Emily Brigham, a UBC assistant professor of respirology and research scientist at the Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute. While Dr. Brigham counsels patients on ways to reduce their own exposure, she and others are also looking for ways to reduce risk in those who cannot. Creative and scalable solutions are urgently needed.
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