Int Low carbon footprint meals Sport Nutr. Additionally, consuming foods rich in nutrients such addaptive Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes and B nutritoin contributes to cognitive function, better mood management, and improved motivation and confidence. Tipton, L. Protein requirements for endurance athletes. No effect of prerace supplementation with vitamins and minerals on performance in an ultra-endurance race.

Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes -

Mawson JT, Braun B, Rock PB, et al. Women at altitude: energy requirement at 4, m. Loucks AB, Kiens B, Wright HH. Energy availability in athletes. Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, et al.

International Olympic Committee IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport RED-S : update. Petkus DL, Murray-Kolb LE, De Souza MJ. The unexplored crossroads of the female athlete triad and iron deficiency: a narrative review. Jelkmann W, Kurtz A, Bauer C. Effects of fasting on the hypoxia-induced erythropoietin production in rats.

Pflugers Arch. Gough CE, Sharpe K, Garvican LA, et al. The effects of injury and illness on haemoglobin mass. Int J Sports Med. Wachsmuth NB, Volzke C, Prommer N, et al. The effects of classic altitude training on hemoglobin mass in swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol.

Heikura IA, Burke LM, Bergland D, et al. Impact of energy availability, health, and sex on hemoglobin-mass responses following live-high-train-high altitude training in elite female and male distance athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. McLean BD, Buttifant D, Gore CJ, et al.

Year-to-year variability in haemoglobin mass response to two altitude training camps. Garvican-Lewis LA, Sharpe K, Gore CJ. Time for a new metric for hypoxic dose? Hou Y, Zhang S, Wang L, et al. Estrogen regulates iron homeostasis through governing hepatic hepcidin expression via an estrogen response element.

Roy CN, Snyder PJ, Stephens-Shields AJ, et al. Association of testosterone levels with anemia in older men: a controlled clinical trial.

JAMA Intern Med. Heikura IA, Uusitalo ALT, Stellingwerff T, et al. Low energy availability is difficult to assess but outcomes have large impact on bone injury rates in elite distance athletes.

Woods AL, Garvican-Lewis LA, Rice A, et al. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. Woods AL, Sharma AP, Garvican-Lewis LA, et al. Four weeks of classical altitude training increases resting metabolic rate in highly trained middle-distance runners. Fudge BW, Westerterp KR, Kiplamai FK, et al. Evidence of negative energy balance using doubly labelled water in elite Kenyan endurance runners prior to competition.

Br J Nutr. Onywera VO, Kiplamai FK, Boit MK, et al. Food and macronutrient intake of elite kenyan distance runners. Beis LY, Willkomm L, Ross R, et al.

Food and macronutrient intake of elite Ethiopian distance runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Burke LM, Lundy B, Fahrenholtz IL, et al. Pitfalls of conducting and interpreting estimates of energy availability in free-living athletes.

Koivisto AE, Paulsen G, Paur I, et al. Antioxidant-rich foods and response to altitude training: a randomized controlled trial in elite endurance athletes. Gore CJ, Hahn A, Rice A, et al. Altitude training at m does not increase total haemoglobin mass or sea level V O 2max in world champion track cyclists.

J Sci Med Sport. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Norton LE. Metabolic adaptation to weight loss: implications for the athlete. Siebenmann C, Cathomen A, Hug M, et al. Hemoglobin mass and intravascular volume kinetics during and after exposure to 3,m altitude.

Siebenmann C, Robach P, Lundby C. Regulation of blood volume in lowlanders exposed to high altitude. Heinicke K, Prommer N, Cajigal J, et al. Long-term exposure to intermittent hypoxia results in increased hemoglobin mass, reduced plasma volume, and elevated erythropoietin plasma levels in man.

Larson-Meyer DE, Woolf K, Burke L. Assessment of nutrient status in athletes and the need for supplementation. Gore CJ, Sharpe K, Garvican-Lewis LA, et al. Altitude training and haemoglobin mass from the optimised carbon monoxide rebreathing method determined by a meta-analysis.

Robach P, Siebenmann C, Jacobs RA, et al. Stray-Gundersen J, Alexander AC, Hochstein A, et al. Failure of red cell volume to increase to altitude exposure in iron deficient runners. Ryan BJ, Wachsmuth NB, Schmidt WF, et al. AltitudeOmics: rapid hemoglobin mass alterations with early acclimatization to and de-acclimatization from m in healthy humans.

PLoS One. Garvican-Lewis LA, Vuong VL, Govus AD, et al. Intravenous iron does not augment the hemoglobin mass response to simulated hypoxia. Garvican-Lewis LA, Govus AD, Peeling P, et al. Iron supplementation and altitude: decision making using a regression tree.

Hall R, Peeling P, Nemeth E, et al. Single versus split dose of iron optimizes hemoglobin mass gains at m altitude. Pedlar CR, Brugnara C, Bruinvels G, et al. Iron balance and iron supplementation for the female athlete: a practical approach.

Eur J Sport Sci. Pedlar CR, Whyte GP, Burden R, et al. A case study of an iron-deficient female Olympic m runner. Govus AD, Garvican-Lewis LA, Abbiss CR, et al.

Pre-altitude serum ferritin levels and daily oral iron supplement dose mediate iron parameter and hemoglobin mass responses to altitude exposure. Macdougall IC. Evolution of iv iron compounds over the last century.

J Ren Care. Rishi G, Wallace DF, Subramaniam VN. Hepcidin: regulation of the master iron regulator. Biosci Rep. Govus AD, Peeling P, Abbiss CR, et al. Live high, train low—influence on resting and post-exercise hepcidin levels.

Peeling P, Sim M, Badenhorst CE, et al. Iron status and the acute post-exercise hepcidin response in athletes. Nemeth E, Tuttle MS, Powelson J, et al. Hepcidin regulates cellular iron efflux by binding to ferroportin and inducing its internalization.

Moretti D, Goede JS, Zeder C, et al. Oral iron supplements increase hepcidin and decrease iron absorption from daily or twice-daily doses in iron-depleted young women. Stoffel NU, Cercamondi CI, Brittenham G, et al. Iron absorption from oral iron supplements given on consecutive versus alternate days and as single morning doses versus twice-daily split dosing in iron-depleted women: two open-label, randomised controlled trials.

Lancet Haematol. Cancelo-Hidalgo MJ, Castelo-Branco C, Palacios S, et al. Tolerability of different oral iron supplements: a systematic review. Curr Med Res Opin. Schaap CC, Hendriks JC, Kortman GA, et al. Diurnal rhythm rather than dietary iron mediates daily hepcidin variations.

Clin Chem. Fisher AE, Naughton DP. Iron supplements: the quick fix with long-term consequences. Nutr J. Munoz M, Gomez-Ramirez S, Bhandari S.

The safety of available treatment options for iron-deficiency anemia. Expert Opin Drug Saf. Pialoux V, Mounier R, Rock E, et al. Eur J Clin Nutr. Dosek A, Ohno H, Acs Z, et al.

High altitude and oxidative stress. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. Sies H, Berndt C, Jones DP. Oxidative Stress. Annu Rev Biochem. Wadley AJ, Svendsen IS, Gleeson M. Heightened exercise-induced oxidative stress at simulated moderate level altitude vs.

sea level in trained cyclists. CAS Google Scholar. Vasankari TJ, Kujala UM, Rusko H, et al. The effect of endurance exercise at moderate altitude on serum lipid peroxidation and antioxidative functions in humans.

Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. Subudhi AW, Davis SL, Kipp RW, et al. Antioxidant status and oxidative stress in elite alpine ski racers. Pialoux V, Brugniaux JV, Rock E, et al. Antioxidant status of elite athletes remains impaired 2 weeks after a simulated altitude training camp.

Eur J Nutr. Debevec T, Pialoux V, Saugy J, et al. Goods PS, Dawson B, Landers GJ, et al. Effect of repeat-sprint training in hypoxia on post-exercise interleukin-6 and F2-isoprostanes. Debevec T, Millet GP, Pialoux V. Hypoxia-induced oxidative stress modulation with physical activity.

Front Physiol. Pialoux V, Mounier R, Brugniaux JV, et al. Lewis NA, Howatson G, Morton K, et al. Alterations in redox homeostasis in the elite endurance athlete.

Quindry J, Dumke C, Slivka D, et al. Impact of extreme exercise at high altitude on oxidative stress in humans. J Physiol. Askew EW. Work at high altitude and oxidative stress: antioxidant nutrients. Irarrazaval S, Allard C, Campodonico J, et al. Oxidative stress in acute hypobaric hypoxia.

Bailey DM, Taudorf S, Berg RM, et al. Increased cerebral output of free radicals during hypoxia: implications for acute mountain sickness? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. Hartmann G, Tschop M, Fischer R, et al. High altitude increases circulating interleukin-6, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and C-reactive protein.

Schippinger G, Fankhauser F, Abuja PM, et al. Competitive and seasonal oxidative stress in elite alpine ski racers. Niess AM, Fehrenbach E, Strobel G, et al. Evaluation of stress responses to interval training at low and moderate altitudes.

Pyne DV, McDonald WA, Morton DS, et al. Inhibition of interferon, cytokine, and lymphocyte proliferative responses in elite swimmers with altitude exposure.

J Interferon Cytokine Res. Walsh NP, Oliver SJ. Exercise, immune function and respiratory infection: an update on the influence of training and environmental stress. Immunol Cell Biol. Simon-Schnass I, Pabst H. Influence of vitamin E on physical performance. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. Bailey DM, Davies B.

Acute mountain sickness; prophylactic benefits of antioxidant vitamin supplementation at high altitude. Schmidt MC, Askew EW, Roberts DE, et al. Oxidative stress in humans training in a cold, moderate altitude environment and their response to a phytochemical antioxidant supplement.

Wilderness Environ Med. Subudhi AW, Jacobs KA, Hagobian TA, et al. Antioxidant supplementation does not attenuate oxidative stress at high altitude. Aviat Space Environ Med.

Baillie JK, Thompson AA, Irving JB, et al. Oral antioxidant supplementation does not prevent acute mountain sickness: double blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial.

Chao WH, Askew EW, Roberts DE, et al. Oxidative stress in humans during work at moderate altitude. J Nutr. Powers SK, Duarte J, Kavazis AN, et al. Reactive oxygen species are signalling molecules for skeletal muscle adaptation. Exp Physiol. Pialoux V, Brugniaux JV, Fellmann N, et al.

Oxidative stress and HIF-1 alpha modulate hypoxic ventilatory responses after hypoxic training on athletes. Merry TL, Ristow M.

Do antioxidant supplements interfere with skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training? Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A, et al. Antioxidants prevent health-promoting effects of physical exercise in humans.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Margaritelis NV, Theodorou AA, Paschalis V, et al. Adaptations to endurance training depend on exercise-induced oxidative stress: exploiting redox interindividual variability. Acta Physiol Oxf. Paulsen G, Cumming KT, Holden G, et al.

Vitamin C and E supplementation hampers cellular adaptation to endurance training in humans: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Koivisto AE, Olsen T, Paur I, Paulsen G, Bastani NE, Garthe I, Raastad T, Matthews J, Blomhoff R, Bøhn SK.

Effects of antioxidant-rich foods on altitude-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in elite endurance athletes: a randomized controlled trial. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Peeling P, Binnie MJ, Goods PSR, et al.

Evidence-based supplements for the enhancement of athletic performance. Shannon OM, McGawley K, Nyback L, et al. Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Kelly J, Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation: effects on plasma nitrite and pulmonary O 2 uptake dynamics during exercise in hypoxia and normoxia.

Masschelein E, Van Thienen R, Wang X, et al. Dietary nitrate improves muscle but not cerebral oxygenation status during exercise in hypoxia. Muggeridge DJ, Howe CC, Spendiff O, et al. A single dose of beetroot juice enhances cycling performance in simulated altitude. Carriker CR, Mermier CM, Van Dusseldorp TA, et al.

Effect of acute dietary nitrate consumption on oxygen consumption during submaximal exercise in hypobaric hypoxia. MacLeod KE, Nugent SF, Barr SI, et al. Acute beetroot juice supplementation does not improve cycling performance in normoxia or moderate hypoxia. Arnold JT, Oliver SJ, Lewis-Jones TM, et al.

Beetroot juice does not enhance altitude running performance in well-trained athletes. Bourdillon N, Fan JL, Uva B, et al. Effect of oral nitrate supplementation on pulmonary hemodynamics during exercise and time trial performance in normoxia and hypoxia: a randomized controlled trial.

Kent GL, Dawson B, McNaughton LR, Cox GR, Burke LM, Peeling P. The effect of beetroot juice supplementation on repeat-sprint performance in hypoxia. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Rokkedal-Lausch T, Franch J, Poulsen MK, et al. Chronic high-dose beetroot juice supplementation improves time trial performance of well-trained cyclists in normoxia and hypoxia.

Nitric Oxide. Roberts D, Smith DJ. Erythropoietin concentration and arterial haemoglobin saturation with supramaximal exercise. Puype J, Ramaekers M, Van Thienen R, et al.

No effect of dietary nitrate supplementation on endurance training in hypoxia. De Smet S, Van Thienen R, Deldicque L, et al. Nitrate intake promotes shift in muscle fiber type composition during sprint interval training in hypoxia.

Rossetti GMK, Macdonald JH, Wylie LJ, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation increases acute mountain sickness severity and sense of effort during hypoxic exercise.

Hultman E, Sahlin K. Acid—base balance during exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. Stellingwerff T, Bovim IM, Whitfield J. Contemporary nutrition interventions to optimize performance in middle-distance runners. Stellingwerff T, Maughan RJ, Burke LM. Cerretelli P, Samaja M. Acid—base balance at exercise in normoxia and in chronic hypoxia.

Juel C, Lundby C, Sander M, et al. Human skeletal muscle and erythrocyte proteins involved in acid—base homeostasis: adaptations to chronic hypoxia.

Mizuno M, Juel C, Bro-Rasmussen T, et al. Limb skeletal muscle adaptation in athletes after training at altitude. Saltin B, Kim CK, Terrados N, et al. Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners.

Nummela A, Rusko H. Acclimatization to altitude and normoxic training improve m running performance at sea level. Kozak-Collins K, Burke ER, Schoene RB. Sodium bicarbonate ingestion does not improve performance in women cyclists.

Flinn S, Herbert K, Graham K, et al. Differential effect of metabolic alkalosis and hypoxia on high-intensity cycling performance.

J Strength Cond Res. Fernandez-Castanys BF, Fernandez MD, Garcia JA. The effect of sodium citrate intake on anaerobic performance in normoxia and after sudden ascent to a moderate altitude. J Sports Med Phys Fit.

Kayser B, Ferretti G, Grassi B, et al. Maximal lactic capacity at altitude: effect of bicarbonate loading. McLellan T, Jacobs I, Lewis W. Acute altitude exposure and altered acid—base states. Effects on exercise performance and muscle and blood lactate.

Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Lepers R, et al. Sodium citrate ingestion and muscle performance in acute hypobaric hypoxia. Deb SK, Gough LA, Sparks SA, et al.

Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C. Effects of chronic NaHCO 3 ingestion during interval training on changes to muscle buffer capacity, metabolism, and short-term endurance performance. McNaughton L, Thompson T. Acute versus chronic sodium bicarbonates ingestion and anaerobic work and power output.

McNaughton L, Backx K, Palmer G, et al. Effects of chronic bicarbonate ingestion on the performance of high-intensity work. Douroudos II, Fatouros IG, Gourgoulis V, et al. Dose-related effects of prolonged NaHCO 3 ingestion during high-intensity exercise.

Sims ST, Rehrer NJ, Bell ML, et al. Preexercise sodium loading aids fluid balance and endurance for women exercising in the heat. Sims ST, van Vliet L, Cotter JD, et al.

Sodium loading aids fluid balance and reduces physiological strain of trained men exercising in the heat. Carr AJ, Slater GJ, Gore CJ, et al. Price MJ, Simons C. The effect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on high-intensity intermittent running and subsequent performance. Saunders B, Sale C, Harris RC, et al.

Sodium bicarbonate and high-intensity-cycling capacity: variability in responses. Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Faigenbaum AD, et al. Short-duration beta-alanine supplementation increases training volume and reduces subjective feelings of fatigue in college football players.

Nutr Res. Smith AE, Moon JR, Kendall KL, et al. The effects of beta-alanine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on neuromuscular fatigue and muscle function. Effect of sodium bicarbonate and beta-alanine on repeated sprints during intermittent exercise performed in hypoxia.

Burgunder JM, Varriale A, Lauterburg BH. Effect of N -acetylcysteine on plasma cysteine and glutathione following paracetamol administration.

Eur J Clin Pharmacol. Slattery KM, Dascombe B, Wallace LK, et al. Effect of N -acetylcysteine on cycling performance after intensified training. McKenna MJ, Medved I, Goodman CA, et al. Droge W, Breitkreutz R. Glutathione and immune function.

Proc Nutr Soc. Zembron-Lacny A, Slowinska-Lisowska M, Szygula Z, et al. Modulatory effect of N -acetylcysteine on pro-antioxidant status and haematological response in healthy men. J Physiol Biochem. Hildebrandt W, Alexander S, Bartsch P, et al.

Effect of N -acetyl-cysteine on the hypoxic ventilatory response and erythropoietin production: linkage between plasma thiol redox state and O 2 chemosensitivity.

Freudenthaler SM, Schreeb KH, Wiese A, et al. Influence of controlled hypoxia and radical scavenging agents on erythropoietin and malondialdehyde concentrations in humans.

Acta Physiol Scand. Kleinveld HA, Demacker PN, Stalenhoef AF. Failure of N -acetylcysteine to reduce low-density lipoprotein oxidizability in healthy subjects.

Mishra KP, Ganju L. Influence of high altitude exposure on the immune system: a review. Immunol Investig. Tsai TY, Wang SH, Lee YK, et al. Ginkgo biloba extract for prevention of acute mountain sickness: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.

BMJ Open. Gertsch JH, Basnyat B, Johnson EW, et al. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled comparison of Ginkgo biloba and acetazolamide for prevention of acute mountain sickness among Himalayan trekkers: the prevention of high altitude illness trial PHAIT.

Physiological implications of altitude training for endurance performance at sea level: a review. Moraga FA, Flores A, Serra J, et al. Ginkgo biloba decreases acute mountain sickness in people ascending to high altitude at Ollague m in northern Chile. Gassmann M, Muckenthaler MU. Adaptation of iron requirement to hypoxic conditions at high altitude.

Sim M, Dawson B, Landers G, et al. Iron regulation in athletes: exploring the menstrual cycle and effects of different exercise modalities on hepcidin production. Telford RD, Sly GJ, Hahn AG, et al. Footstrike is the major cause of hemolysis during running.

Hurrell R, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr. Download references. This supplement is supported by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute GSSI.

The supplement was guest edited by Lawrence L. Spriet, who attended a meeting of the GSSI Expert Panel in March and received honoraria from the GSSI, a division of PepsiCo, Inc.

Dr Spriet received no honoraria for guest editing the supplement. Dr Spriet suggested peer reviewers for each paper, which were sent to the Sports Medicine Editor-in-Chief for approval, prior to any reviewers being approached.

Dr Spriet provided comments on each paper and made an editorial decision based on comments from the peer reviewers and the Editor-in-Chief. Where decisions were uncertain, Dr Spriet consulted with the Editor-in-Chief.

Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Institute for Sport Excellence, Interurban Road, Victoria, BC, V9E 2C5, Canada. Department of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.

School of Human Sciences Exercise and Sport Science , University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia. Western Australian Institute of Sport, Mt Claremont, Australia. Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia.

Laura A. Garvican-Lewis, Ida A. Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia. Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Trent Stellingwerff. This article is based on a presentation by Trent Stellingwerff to the GSSI Expert Panel in March Funding for attendance at that meeting together with an honorarium for preparation of this article were provided by the GSSI.

No other sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this article. Trent Stellingwerff, Peter Peeling, Laura Garvican-Lewis, Rebecca Hall, Anu Koivisto, Ida Heikura and Louise Burke have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this article.

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions. Stellingwerff, T. et al. Nutrition and Altitude: Strategies to Enhance Adaptation, Improve Performance and Maintain Health: A Narrative Review.

Sports Med 49 Suppl 2 , — Download citation. Published : 06 November Issue Date : December Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Download PDF. Contemporary Periodization of Altitude Training for Elite Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review Article 26 August Factors Affecting Sea-Level Performance Following Altitude Training in Elite Athletes Article 04 November Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

FormalPara Key Points While the effects of high altitude on the endocrine systems, energy intake, resting metabolic rate and body mass are severe, it appears that resting metabolic rate is also increased, albeit to a smaller extent, at low to moderate altitudes, and targeting adequate energy intake is important for optimizing health and appears to be an emerging factor associated with optimizing altitude adaptations.

Full size image. References Mujika I, Sharma AP, Stellingwerff T. Article Google Scholar Wilber RL. Google Scholar Bonetti DL, Hopkins WG. PubMed Google Scholar Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Gore CJ.

PubMed Google Scholar Chapman RF, Karlsen T, Resaland GK, et al. Endurance exercise performance roughly depends on three major aspects: I maximal oxygen consumption VO 2max , II the percentage of VO 2max that can be sustained during endurance exercise, which in turn is largely dictated by the lactate threshold, and III mechanical efficiency, defined as the energy cost to sustain a power output or velocity Wackerhage, Training these limiting factors may lead to an increase in oxidative capacity through hematological and metabolic adaptations and associated enhanced O 2 transport and utilization Montero et al.

O 2 transport is primarily regulated via cardiac e. Synthesis and degradation rates of skeletal muscle proteins are usually in balance, ensuring that the amount of skeletal muscle proteins remains unchanged in healthy individuals Burd et al. However, acute changes in different intramuscular protein fractions mitochondrial, myofibrillar, sarcolemma could be training specific.

It has been proposed that endurance training augments the concentration of mitochondrial proteins without any changes in muscle size Holloszy and Booth, Based on this idea, one could expect that different types of training would stimulate the intramuscular protein fractions differently.

However, various authors reported similar increases of the effect of different exercise modes endurance, resistance or concurrent on mitochondrial protein synthesis during the early post-exercise period Wilkinson et al. An increased need for dietary protein could partly arise from enhanced amino acid oxidation during endurance training Tarnopolsky, ; Moore et al.

Indeed, earlier studies have demonstrated increased amino acid oxidation rates through stimulation of protein breakdown rates Lemon and Mullin, ; Bowtell et al. Additionally, it has been theorized that endurance training affects amino acid requirements for an increased need of enzymes, for capillarization, and for hemoglobin and myoglobin synthesis Tarnopolsky, The current sport science consensus statements on nutrition and athletic performance advises 1.

However, Kato et al. Moreover, they reported an estimated average requirement and a recommended protein intake of 1. Therefore, it remains to be established whether these recommendations are optimal for individuals participating in endurance training regimes and whether this is affected by the training phase of the individual and other training parameters including intensity, type and frequency.

Only a few investigations have addressed the role of protein ingestion before and during endurance training modalities. In line with previous work on protein ingestion prior to and during resistance exercise Tipton et al.

However, short high-intensity endurance bursts such as repeated sprints differ both energetically and metabolically from prolonged continuous endurance training. For example, prolonged endurance training stimulates the oxidation of amino acids, in particular isoleucine, leucine and valine, otherwise known as the branched chain amino acids BCAAs.

Even though mitochondria are capable of oxidizing a variety of amino acids, they preferentially oxidize BCAAs Phillips et al. These amino acids including BCAAs can be used as a substitute for carbohydrates and fat as fuel source for ATP resynthesis. When compared to carbohydrates and fat, leucine oxidation during endurance exercise is relatively low Lamont et al.

Since leucine is an essential amino acid and considered to be important for its role in translational machinery Churchward-Venne et al.

Other work by Koopman and colleagues demonstrated that the combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate throughout a prolonged endurance exercise bout 2. The enhanced whole body net protein balance with protein ingestion may be partly explained by the diminished muscle protein breakdown during endurance exercise Hulston et al.

Furthermore, the favored enhanced net protein balance has been proposed as the theoretical basis for a potential ergogenic effect of protein ingestion during endurance exercise.

Yet, findings of combined carbohydrate and protein ingestion during endurance exercise on performance outcomes are controversial Saunders, For instance, in a study by Saunders et al.

No significant difference in 60 km total time between the conditions was found. In spite of that, the addition of protein hydrolysate to the carbohydrate beverage explained a significant amount of variance in performance times between conditions during the final stages 20 and 5 km of the time trial Saunders et al.

The latter suggests a favorable effect of protein ingestion during exercise on endurance performance. Lastly, the addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement consumed during exercise does not improve recovery or performance in elite cyclists despite high demands of daily exhaustive sessions during a 1-week training camp Hansen et al.

In summary, there is currently little evidence for improved endurance performance with protein intake before and during endurance exercise. Since most of the research so far has focused on protein ingestion with resistance exercise, these findings form generally the basis for protein ingestion recommendations for individuals participating in endurance-based programs.

However, the skeletal muscle adaptive response during post-exercise recovery is strongly affected by food intake. Post-exercise supplementation in the form of protein after exercise has been the focus of many acute exercise interventions Howarth et al.

Only a few studies have examined the responses of dietary protein on mitochondrial protein synthesis after endurance exercise. Breen et al. Immediately and 30 min following the exercise bout, subjects ingested a carbohydrate beverage and in one condition a total of 20 g of whey protein was added.

It was shown that the co-ingestion of whey protein with carbohydrate augments the myofibrillar protein synthetic response up to 4 h after exercise Breen et al.

Their finding, namely that endurance exercise with post-exercise dietary protein ingestion enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis, is in accordance with previous findings where subjects ingested protein after high-intensity sprint exercise Coffey et al.

Noteworthy, the authors did not find a difference between the conditions on mitochondrial protein synthesis. It might be possible that the timing of the biopsy overlooked any potential increase in mitochondrial protein synthesis.

Indeed, recent work by Hill et al. The different findings are possibly explained by the timing of the muscle biopsies and the applied nutritional strategy. Lastly, even though mitochondrial protein synthesis and PGC-1α mRNA can be both used as a marker for mitochondrial recovery, comparison of findings remains difficult.

At this moment, there is not much research on the effects of protein ingestion during the prolonged recovery period after endurance exercise from 3 up to 12 h post-exercise.

However, Areta et al. Specifically, in their study they compared three isocaloric timing strategies for protein ingestion during a 12 h period after resistance exercise: I 2 × 40 g every 6 h bolus ; II 4 × 20 g every 3 h intermediate ; and III 8 × 10 g every 1.

It was concluded that intermediate feeding was superior to either bolus or pulse feeding for stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis. Albeit somewhat speculative, it is likely that individuals participating in an endurance training regime also benefit from an intermediate protein ingestion strategy.

Further on this notion, work from Breen et al. However, mitochondrial protein synthesis measurements were taken in the early post-exercise endurance period, since the latency of mitochondrial protein synthesis is currently unclear, it could be that a response at a later stage was overlooked.

The period of the endurance training intervention is an important aspect when looking at how skeletal muscle adaptations can be influenced by dietary protein. Indeed, recent work by Montero et al. Moreover, in their study, skeletal muscle adaptations related to muscle capillarization and mitochondrial volume density did not substantially contribute to the improvements in VO 2peak following the 6 weeks of endurance training.

It is therefore important to conduct endurance training intervention studies over a longer period e. In the study of Robinson et al. The absolute VO 2max increased in the protein group but not in the carbohydrate group following 6 weeks of aerobic training Robinson et al. The finding that protein supplementation improves endurance training-induced oxidative adaptations is supported by the study of Ferguson-Stegall et al.

Somewhat surprisingly, markers of mitochondrial adaptation such as citrate synthase activity, succinate dehydrogenase activity and PGC-1α increased as a result of training independent of the type of nutritional intervention Ferguson-Stegall et al. Finally, supplementation of a mixture BCAAs in mice increased mitochondrial biogenesis and whole body physical endurance as measured as the time till exhaustion in a treadmill test D'Antona et al.

Since sport specific performance outcomes were not included in aforementioned studies, it remains unclear whether the increase in VO 2max improved the performance.

The superiority of one protein source over another in terms of exercise adaptation has not been convincingly demonstrated Campbell et al.

In the context of this perspective, it is the bioactivity of different protein sources that is of primary consideration, given the potential beneficial effects on oxygen diffusion and utilization. For these reasons as well as convenience, powder-form supplements are often recommended.

Given the further geo-logistic, time, and dosage demands of endurance sport, tablet-form protein supplements may be of greater facility in some instances. On a metabolic level, the presence or absence of essential amino acids Hoffman and Falvo, , leucine content Norton et al. Despite a range of assessment scales existing Hoffman and Falvo, ; Jäger et al.

Multiple authors have reported differences in biological value between protein sources Hoffman and Falvo, ; Bauer et al. In addition, it has been demonstrated that more rapidly digested sources i.

However, the suitability of the existing assessment scales varies with respect to their relevance to endurance athletes as does the use of an inappropriately short 1-h assessment window. For instance, the Protein Efficiency Ratio PER , representing mass gain per g of protein ingested, represents an inverse of suitability for most endurance athletes.

Biological value too may be of limited use to endurance athletes as it considers only the tissue-related nitrogen use thus omitting protein synthesis of oxidative enzymes and hematopoiesis, for instance.

The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score PDCAAS is the most widely used assessment, but it too is limited by its lack of consideration of ileal digestibility, and the short-sightedness of determining protein quality based on the content of a single amino acid which may be sufficiently abundant in the habitual diet.

Endurance athletes demonstrate prolonged periods of increased muscle protein synthesis while still engaged in exercise, meaning protein requirements are elevated while in a state of compromised gastric function and reduced feeding opportunities van Wijck et al.

The PDCAAS may be of assistance to athletes engaging in ultra-endurance events, by informing a decision which should maximize essential amino acids per weight consumed, to minimize the risk of gastrointestinal distress. There is a lack of understanding concerning the practical relevance of established differences in source bioactivity on the adaptive response to endurance training, though some reports when combined suggest an adaptive advantage Tang et al.

Unpublished data from our own study of supplementary effects of proteins on endurance training adaptation showed a response effect of habitual carbohydrate intake, before controlling for the expected variation due to casein supplementation.

This suggests that the adaptation effect of supplementing even a robust bioavailable protein source is relatively low in the context of dietary effects on training outcomes, and so the importance of protein source is somewhat diminished.

Wolfe in his article raised the suggestion that endurance athletes' optimal protein intake may seek to maximize recovery protein synthesis while avoiding weight gain protein deposition Wolfe, With this goal, one may seek to provide an endurance-tailored amino acid profile which avoids a hypertrophy-oriented profile e.

The amino acid composition of the parenthesised drivers of these processes may serve as a start-point for the elucidation of an endurance-specific ideal in terms of amino acid profile.

However, the profile of downstream products, endogenous amino acid bioavailability, and the quantities involved ought to be considered. The leucine-induced increase in muscle protein synthesis is contested in humans, and high quantities may decrease autophagy a vital aspect of endurance-specific adaptation Glynn et al.

As such, the mechanisms of leucine's effects on body composition, muscle protein synthesis initiation factors e. It has been reported that BCAAs are preferentially oxidized ahead of un-branched amino acids during endurance exercise Hood and Terjung, ; MacLean et al.

Given that BCAAs are also essential and that muscle protein synthesis is elevated following but also during exercise Konopka et al.

The existing wisdom regarding protein supplementation is thus more likely to hold true; a readily digested source of protein with high leucine content e.

In these situations protein supplementation may aid in satiety as well as achieving protein intake targets while total energy demands of training are likely decreased. As described earlier in this paper, mitochondrial protein synthesis demonstrates a delayed response post-exercise when compared to myofibrillar protein synthesis Di Donato et al.

It then follows that the acute protein requirement for endurance athletes immediately following exercise may be reduced, while the window of elevated utilization may exist for a longer time-period compared to strength trainers.

If true, the existing advice paradigm of rapidly absorbed protein to be ingested as soon as possible post-exercise may sub-optimally support the protein-synthetic adaptive response to endurance training.

In consideration of this observation, protein with a slower digestion rate may be preferable. However, it has been suggested that essential amino acid content and rapid digestion tend to coexist in protein sources Tang et al. Furthermore, the greater insulin response reported to accompany these properties, which may contribute to digestion rate, is likely unavoidable in the context of post-endurance exercise refueling of muscle glycogen.

Consumption of post-exercise protein in a whole-food form including dietary fiber to prolong the period of elevated amino acid availability is one simple solution.

To summarize, evidence of the role of protein on endurance training adaptations and performance is scarce. Yet, a number of acute endurance exercise studies have raised interesting hypotheses.

However, these hypotheses are mainly based on studies measuring muscle protein synthesis, physiological e. Even though the findings of acute exercise studies contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms that underpin adaptation with endurance training, it is no direct proof that individuals performing endurance training benefit from additional protein.

PK wrote the perspective. MH, CV, and MM contributed substantially by giving insightful comments and suggestions during the creation of the perspective. This study was part of the EAT2MOVE project and supported by a grant from the Province of Gelderland, proposal PS The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, American College of Sports Medicine, Rodriguez, N. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Sports Exerc. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar.

Areta, J. Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. Bauer, J. Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: a position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group.

Bowtell, J. Effect of oral glucose on leucine turnover in human subjects at rest and during exercise at two levels of dietary protein. Breen, L. The influence of carbohydrate-protein co-ingestion following endurance exercise on myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis.

Burd, N. Muscle time under tension during resistance exercise stimulates differential muscle protein sub-fractional synthetic responses in men. Exercise training and protein metabolism: influences of contraction, protein intake, and sex-based differences.

Burke, L. Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. Campbell, B. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Sports Nutr. Cermak, N. Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis.

Churchward-Venne, T. Supplementation of a suboptimal protein dose with leucine or essential amino acids: effects on myofibrillar protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in men.

Coffey, V. Nutrient provision increases signalling and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle after repeated sprints. Dangin, M. Influence of the protein digestion rate on protein turnover in young and elderly subjects.

D'Antona, G. Branched-chain amino acid supplementation promotes survival and supports cardiac and skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in middle-aged mice. Cell Metab. de Oliveira, E. Gastrointestinal complaints during exercise: prevalence, etiology, and nutritional recommendations. Sports Med.

Di Donato, D. Influence of aerobic exercise intensity on myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis in young men during early and late postexercise recovery. Donges, C. Concurrent resistance and aerobic exercise stimulates both myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis in sedentary middle-aged men.

Egan, B. Exercise metabolism and the molecular regulation of skeletal muscle adaptation. Fardet, A.

Within this narrative review we have highlighted six major Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes involving nutrition: altered energy availability, athleyes, carbohydrate, hydration, xdaptive requirements and various performance supplements. Furthermore, the safest Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes to address the possible increase in oxidative stress associated Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes athltees exposure is via the Eneurance of antioxidant-rich foods rather than Stress reduction antioxidant supplements. Wdaptive, many other important questions regarding nutrition and altitude training remain to be answered. At the elite level of sport where the differences between winning and losing are incredibly small, the strategic use of nutritional interventions to enhance the adaptations to altitude training provides an important consideration in the search for optimal performance. Iñigo Mujika, Avish P. While the effects of high altitude on the endocrine systems, energy intake, resting metabolic rate and body mass are severe, it appears that resting metabolic rate is also increased, albeit to a smaller extent, at low to moderate altitudes, and targeting adequate energy intake is important for optimizing health and appears to be an emerging factor associated with optimizing altitude adaptations.

Your body has its normal demands PLUS the demands of exercise! You can optimize performance by understanding how athletee body works and manipulating your nutrition to push Enduramce body further, without detrimental Enduramce.

The number one priority athletex maximize your training is to nutritioon ENOUGH to fuel your body and recover throughout the atjletes of the week. Adaptige is nurrition matched by the nutriyion of carbohydrates, within athldtes total adaptie intake.

If you are losing weight too quickly, then performance becomes impaired Endurnace you will feel overly hungry, tired and lethargic.

This shows adaptie you need more food! Ahtletes Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes why Fuel for performance ALWAYS implement higher calorie days with our endurance Weight control supplements. In Polyphenols and diabetes prevention respect the role of nutrition is huge.

Nutrittion we get into any specific fueling or weight loss strategies, it is important Doctor recommended fat burner understand the mechanisms of fuel usage afaptive training!

You can optimize performance by athleets how your body works! When nuhrition gas tank is full, things are pretty easy, however, as sthletes train, your gas is depleting. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose CARBS are nutirtion most important substrate for the contracting muscle.

This is why peri-workout nutrition is especially important which we will athlletes into a little later. To meet these goals Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes depend Endurajce on ath,etes CHO athleges fuels to sustain rates of muscle energy production. Despite some literature around high-fat, low-CHO diets for Stress relief meditation athletes, athletrs diets do not improve training capacity or performance Enndurance compared to carbohydrates.

Hawley —. Your macros and calories are individualized based on your body type, training goals, and fuel management which is often determined by the guts ability to handle substrate if you need an individualized nutrition plan, Improve insulin sensitivity and reduce oxidative stress you — click here now and apply for Vegetarian diet options world renown coaching.

Also a Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes of energy and important for proper nutrifion absorption. Fats are Endurancee components of cell Endurxnce, playing fro in signaling and transport, nerve function, providing insulation and Edurance Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes protection, and are the source of essential dietary fatty acids.

Carbs are our adaptivs source nuttrition energy. They are stored in the muscles and liver, break effective strategies for controlling blood glucose fast and provide quick energy.

Carbohydrates should Endurxnce the focus hutrition your nutrition plan. As the body burns through Adaptjve stores of glycogen, external Endurajce is Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes to fuel performance and recovery.

Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes joint position stand nEdurance the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics AND Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes, Dietitians of Canada DCand the Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes College of Sports Medicine ACSM recommends Cholesterol level prevention. time Inflammation reduction for better sleep complete a predetermined distance.

The size and composition of your pre-training meal depends Anti-cancer exercise and fitness Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes few factors:. My atjletes of thumb when it comes to pre-training meals is to have a mixed meal.

Carbs flr king nutrifion Choose an easily digestible carbohydrate that is ~g nuutrition. Your post training meal is possibly the most important one of the day. This meal is essential for muscle recovery and regeneration. You should aim to consume your post workout meal ASAP or within 45 minutes of your session.

This should be a carbohydrate heavy meal g with a full serving of protein g and moderate fat g. Hydration and electrolyte planning is very specific to the individual sweat rates, sweat sodium content, exercise intensity, body temperature, ambient temperature, bodyweight, kidney function.

Adjust according to individual variations Follow thirst mechanism, monitor parameters bodyweight before training vs. after or urine color. This allows you to practice race scenarios and feuling at that bodyweight. If you want to lose weight before racing, it is very possible and should be done in your off season months before the serious race or training season starts!

The WORST thing an endurance athlete can do is under fuel. The reason for this is, you can use this time to taper training and focus on doing what is necessary to maintain endurance and lean mass while in a slight deficit.

This rate of loss should be relatively slow ~0. With the reduction in calories should come changes to your training plan. This is also why we focus on weight change in the off season. It is also important to focus on strength training to maintain lean mass, and be smart about fueling.

Dieting as an endurance athlete is a different beast because you need to be in tune with your body. You do not want you to have any crazy hunger. In order to determine your rate and duration of fat loss, you must calculate your energy needs to maintain your weight.

You can use calculators to find maintenance but that caloric value is very much impacted by your diet history as the metabolism adapts overtime.

From there, evaluate what happens over the first two weeks. If you are losing too quickly, performance becomes impaired, you are feeling overly hungry, tired and lethargic.

This shows that you need more food. I ALWAYS implement higher calorie days with my endurance athletes especially. Remember that gas tank we talked about? That is so important here! If you are dieting linearly, you may lose weight fast but you also may plateau fast.

This is why I use a couple specific strategies with my athletes to maintain metabolic rate, lean mass, and optimize performance especially during a dieting phase. Strategically increasing your caloric intake through additional carbohydrates, over a two to three day period. This stemmed from the concept of cheat meals back in the day.

While they are different, the philosophy is the same. So in order to attempt at maintain your metabolic rate, we likely need somewhere between days of refeeding.

Refeeds can be used to refill your gas tank after training on a low to moderate intake for a period of time. Refeeds for endurance athletes will likely need to be more regular. I will typically plan refeeds around my athletes most demanding training day or days. Ideally we will refeed the day before, day of, and sometimes day after a long or intense session to optimize performance and recovery before going back to the lower intake.

You can read more about refeeds HERE. Alternating between higher and lower intakes by manipulating carbohydrates to fuel performance or improve adherence. I take a very personalized approach when using carb cycling with my endurance athletes for a few reasons:. This is why I like using a three day approach consisting of: Low, moderate, and high carbohydrates.

This approach allows both metabolic flexibility, the ability to fuel training and replenish glycogen stores, and also put you in a calorie deficit across the span of a week. Instead of using a linear approach, we would have two-three different intakes to optimize higher carb days to allow greater fuel usage, improve biofeedback, and negate down-regulation of the metabolism.

You can read more about carb cycling HERE. Of course, there are many other strategies being used today however, they are much more complex Train low, train high, etc.

When someone, i. you, wants to decrease their body fat, increase their strength or muscle…. I was recently interviewed on The OPEX Fitness Podcast [OPEX: Fitness Explained] and it was….

Sauna, ice baths, cryotherapy, steam room, massages… with so many ever increasing recovery methods it…. Another week, but unlike the mass majority of the population… this gets…. Your metabolism keeps slowing down each and every birthday? Every single month, our Chief Science Officer Dr. Brandon Roberts puts together a Research Review….

Depending on what studies you read, you might find that, technically, building muscle while burning…. Understanding Your Neurotype Table of Contents What is Neurotype Training? Who Should Use Neurotype…. Have you ever noticed that successful people are always telling you to….

The key to actually seeing success from a nutrition plan or diet protocol, is individualizing…. Each month I will cover two research articles on nutrition, training, sleep, supplements, or anything….

This actually comes straight out of a Chris Stapleton song,…. Day 1 starts tomorrow! I got your nutrition prescription as well as a guide…. What the hell are you talking…. Take action…. Plateaus suck. Plain and simple, they suck.

Intermittent fasting has been expanding in popularity right now more than ever and tons…. I have heard countless times, whether in magazines, from YouTubers, vegans and even health professionals….

Heading into my first bikini competition I had at least one hundred random questions. Sometimes horrible things, like nightmares, can be a blessing in disguise. I had a nightmare;….

If there was ever a formula for success… this is….

: Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes

Top 10 Nutrition Tips for Endurance Athletes - Eat 2 Run	Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes dietary protein, endurance training, muscle adaptation, mitochondria, supplementation Citation: Knuiman P, Blood pressure diet plan MTE, Verbruggen C and Mensink M Protein adaotive the Tahletes Response Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes Endurance Training: Wishful Thinking or athletfs Competitive Edge? In order to minimise any exercise-induced immunosuppression, training-low should be undertaken during sessions that are not dedicated to uncustomary training loads i. Reprints and permissions. In addition, it has been demonstrated that more rapidly digested sources i. Plain and simple, this is just…. Maximizing Your Performance During The CrossFit Open. Biochemical adaptations to endurance exercise in muscle.
Nutrition for Endurance Athletes 101	Kettlebell workouts are one of the most diverse training modalities out there. Athletes are at high risk of inadequate zinc levels [ ] and should therefore strive to achieve adequate zinc intake through zinc-rich foods. Article Google Scholar Knechtle B, Zimmermann K, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Kohler G. Flinn S, Herbert K, Graham K, et al. Collectively, this work presents the notion that when EA is adequate as indicated via no change in BM in the study by Woods et al. Research on ultra-endurance athletes has demonstrated that their need to prevent oxidative damage is higher given their extraordinary exercise volume [ ]. Full text.
Nutrition For Endurance Athletes | Tailored Coaching Method	Burke, Adaptiev. Want Cognitive training apps know Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes easiest way to start losing athletse Meal preparation and planning can be made easier with the use of kitchen gadgets such as slow cookers and pressure cookers for batch cooking. On INSEP-Éditions. PubMed Google Scholar Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL.
Top bar navigation	Regulatory mechanisms of skeletal muscle protein turnover during exercise. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Gore CJ, Sharpe K, Garvican-Lewis LA, et al. Pesta , Deutsche Zentrum für Diabetesforschung DZD , Germany. Wachsmuth NB, Volzke C, Prommer N, et al. Hildebrandt W, Alexander S, Bartsch P, et al.

Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes -

Week 1 is complete! And DAMN…. That was a long week! But the best feeling…. At some point in your training, the basics just get boring.

Fit over One thing I always hear in the gym that irritates the hell out of me…. The Ultimate Guide to Fitness and Nutrition Coaching. Why You Should Hire An Online Fitness and Nutrition Coach First and foremost, it should…. Podcast Interview on "Hefty To Handsome" — A Nutrition Plan For Real People with Cody Boom Boom McBroom.

Podcast Interview with Gene Fox of Hefty To…. What Happens If You Eat Too Much Protein? Muscle Growth For The Female Lifter. Gaining — a scary word for most women to hear or even think about, especially…. How to Build Lasting Habits, While Breaking The Ones Holding You Back.

This is not a guide for how to quickly lose 10 pounds of fat, so…. Fad diets do work, at first. And then the results slowly taper off until they…. Things that take hard work, scare you quite a bit, push you further and harder….

How To Get 6-Pack Abs 3-Step Guide To A Shredded Core. How To Get 6-Pack Abs Table of Contents How To Get 6-Pack Abs 1….

The "Body Fat Set Point"…. Myth or Truth? The body fat set point… Myth or Truth? Such a great topic, also a really controversial…. Time to Take Action!

These past few weekends I have had the opportunity to learn and hang with some…. Get Shredded for Summer! What is the best fat loss diet plan?

I always get that question and…. CASE STUDY CLIENT [Breaking The Diet-Rebound Cycle]. Can I Exercise with a Muscle Strain? Muscle strains seem to happen at the most inopportune time. They are a common injury….

Should YOU Take a Cheat Meal?! The Ultimate Kettlebell Workout Guide. Intermittent Fasting — Everything You NEED To Know. Clean Eating VS. Tracking Macros. Progress is made at the speed of trust. This one BLEW OUR MINDS this week…. The Pursuit Of Happiness: 5 Steps to a Happier Lifestyle.

Sometimes the most important thing in life is to simply just be a good person……. The 5 Metrics You MUST Be Measuring. A Day in The Not So Average Life — VLOG Ep.

For a chance to start your 30 day transformation, visit the links below! The 30…. Repeat After Me… This will be short, not necessarily sweet, and very much to the…. How To Use A TDEE and BMR Calculator To Lose Weight. How To Use TDEE and BMR Calculator To Lose Weight BMR Basal Metabolic Rate and….

Fasting before cardio will burn more body fat. Plain and simple, this is just…. Wow… I have a lot of respect for bodybuilders, bikini and physique competitors. Well, I…. Artificial Sweeteners: Good or Bad? Diet Help or Danger? Self-Made is Made Up.

someone who loves rap music ,…. Top 7 Nutrition Mistakes CrossFit Athletes Make. CrossFit is an incredibly demanding sport and taxing on the body.

A combination of pure…. How Much Protein Can You Absorb In One Meal? How To Properly Warm Up, For Strength Training. Better Gut, Better Abs. Practical Experiences and Applications Of Intermittent Fasting. Resistance Training vs. Cardio PT.

The Ultimate Evidence Based Supplement Guide. This is a training principle that I teach many of my clients,…. EPISODE Monster Mentality.

Week 10 is here and for lack of better words… Shit just got real! THE GREAT SUGAR DEBATE : Is Sugar Safe? Will it Ruin Results? What is Proven? Sugar has been scaring us for decades, from the claims of it impacting and being…. How To Individualize Your Nutrition Plan 8 Ways To Tailor Your Diet.

To Individualize what you do, is not only the most optimal way to see results;…. Nutrient Timing What The Science Actually Tells Us. calories out….

The Final Chapter…. Testosterone is perhaps the most well known and most sought after hormone in the male…. Is a Carb a Carb? Do Nutrients Matter? How much do I need? Is a carb a carb? Does it matter where we get our macronutrients?

Or is…. Never Give Up. Sometimes waiting to reach our goal can feel like an eternity, especially when that goal…. Metabolic Adaptation and Concurrent Training [October Research Round Up]. The Ultimate Protein Guide. Concurrent Training: A Practical Guide, Backed By Science.

Fish Oil Supplementation Fish oil supplements are widely used for their health and wellness benefits. Fish oil is…. Two weeks down…. Only ten more to go. Damn… TEN?! I think time has slowed….

Is Your Metabolism Damaged? Training in a Hotel or Apartment Gym VLOG — Complete Workout, Coached Through. Understanding Gut Health How Your Gut Determines Your Health. We covered probiotics a few weeks ago, which just barely scratched the surface of gut….

Second podcast. The Intention-Behavior Gap. So we talked about sleep and why it directly links to your results in the…. Mini Cuts… Secret To Fast Tracking Your Results? Or All Hype? How to Intensify Your Workout: 7 Proven Training Techniques. For a printable version,that you can use at home or on the go to stay….

Every detail matters. Louis, while…. How To Change Your Behaviors and Lose More Weight. We appear to be going about health and weight loss all wrong. As nutrition coaches,…. Pre Intra Post — Mastering Your Workout Nutrition. High carb vs. low carb is a seemingly endless debate on my Instagram feed, with….

Do you Eat TOO Much Protein? or Not Enough? Why You Are Fat, Lazy and Tired All The Time. The Simplicity Of Success. Use Doubt As Fuel, Not Hydroxide. Do you know what hydroxide can do to your…. Diet Breaks: Defined and Applied.

Today we are going to talk about how you can maximize the effectiveness of your…. Getting Through The Holidays [Without Ruining Your Progress]. The holidays are a time for friends, family, and yes, lots of good food!

Make Life Awesome. Are you doing everything in your power to be the best you possibly can be? Two-A-Day Training: Is More Better? Or Destructive? Training twice per day, also known as two-a-days, stems from the idea that more is…. The Gardener. What does a gardener and a champion have in common?

A Prolific Sense…. Discovering True Human Optimization [Harsh Reality]. This could be…. How to Create A Fat Loss Meal Plan. First we need to define and differentiate the different kinds of diets you can follow….

The "All or Nothing" Mentality, That Kills Long-Term Progress. Rules Of Flexible Dieting: While Traveling.

So here it is, one of the biggest struggles for anyone attempting to lose weight,…. The Ultimate Fat Burning Supplement Stack Backed By Science. Training To Failure Yes or No? and New Year Resolutions How To Not Fail — February Research Review.

Today I read a story, the kind of story that makes you stop, shut…. As a reader of my blog, I can assume your goal is to look, perform,…. Defining Your Appreciation. I recently heard a story of a young man; so young he can barely drink….

Intermittent Fasting and Time Restricted Feeding [Magic or Myth? The Greats and YOU… Are the same. One of the biggest mistakes I see in the training world with clients… is training,…. Eliminate These 2 Things In Order To Get Better Results There are TWO very specific…. Everything You Need To Know About Carb-Cycling.

Research Roundup Do Weight Vest Help Fat Loss and is Betaine Worth The Hype? EPISODE 8: Trust The Process. Week 7 is complete, week 8 is here and my physique show feels like it…. Being awesome is to say the least, well its awesome.

So in my opinion everyone…. How To Naturally Boost Your Testosterone Levels. A Crash Course On Your Hormones What You Need To Know. Top Strategies For Mastering Your Meal Prep.

How To Turn A Bad Day Around I had a pretty shitty day today. How Your Intensity Determines Your Results. MJ, Kobe, Tom Brady… You. Does Caffeine HELP or STOP Fat Loss? Caffeine can help you burn fat… But wait it can mess with your adrenal glands……. Self Limiting Behaviors. Hey… You or someone you know NEEDS to read this.

So please,…. Just Show Up. Just being honest. Well, let me give…. How To Avoid Injury. Drink More Water. I just started my diet a couple days ago, to…. Most of us are doing many little things throughout the day and week that are….

Nobody is Self-Made. Body Fat Overshooting Post Diet Consequences. We live in what feels like the peak of a fad diet culture, where media….

Fuck mediocrity. Look around. At each area of your life. Your body. Your mind. Todays post is all about the most important question we need to ask ourselves on…. You should love how you look! I saw a picture that was taken of me…. Why Losing Weight Fast Is A Bad Idea. Losing weight fast is a very popular topic in the fitness and nutrition industry….

The Complete Guide To Dietary Fats. Dietary fats are essential to give your body energy and to support cell growth, they….

The Truth About Calorie Calculators. The truth about calculating calories is frustrating, sadly. But as sad as it may be,…. Cardio vs.

Which is better for fat loss or improved body composition? As with…. If you ask any person who is over the age…. What Type of Protein Powder is Most Effective? Why YOU Are Not Getting Results. I think everyone, at least once within his or her training history, has been stuck….

How To Create The Most Effective Full Body Training Program. on DrJohnRusin. Downhill Metabolisms [What Actually Happens When We Diet]. Yesterday, one of my employees texted me asking if we had…. Quick Fix For Low Back Pain.

Low back pain is probably one of the most common issues of pain within the…. Overtraining or Under-Recovering? Killing Yourself in The Gym is Killing Your Progress and Hormones. Functional Upper Body Training Session [Full Workout Explained].

Eating too close to the competition can cause discomfort and may negatively impact performance. It is recommended to eat a meal hours before the competition to allow for proper digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Additionally, athletes should avoid trying new foods or supplements on the day of the competition to prevent any potential adverse reactions. During endurance events, carbohydrate-rich foods and drinks are essential in maintaining energy and blood glucose levels.

For events lasting more than an hour, athletes should aim to consume carbohydrates in regular breaks, with around grams of carbohydrates per hour. Athletes should also stay hydrated during events and drink fluids containing both electrolytes and carbohydrates to replace essential nutrients lost through sweating.

Fluid intake should aim to match fluid losses to maintain optimal hydration status. Post-exercise recovery nutrition is essential in restoring energy reserves, repairing muscle tissue and replenishing fluids and electrolytes lost through sweat.

Ideally, a meal or snack should be consumed within two hours of finishing exercise, consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and fluids. A mix of carbohydrates and protein helps to replenish glycogen stores and repair muscle tissue. Fluids containing electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium, should also be consumed to replace lost nutrients and to aid in rehydration.

Supplements such as protein powders, creatine, and caffeine are commonly used among athletes to improve performance. However, before taking any supplements, it's crucial for athletes to consult a sports dietitian to ensure that supplements are safe, effective, and necessary.

While some supplements may be beneficial for meeting increased nutrient demands, they should never replace a balanced diet of whole foods. Additionally, some supplements may have adverse effects on certain medical conditions or medications, highlighting the importance of expert guidance on the use of supplements.

Preparing nutritious meals can be challenging, especially with the demands of training and competition. To make meal planning and preparation easier, athletes can create a weekly meal plan, focusing on whole foods that can be prepared in advance and easily reheated at a later time.

Athletes can also experiment with new healthy recipes to keep meals varied and prevent boredom. Meal preparation and planning can be made easier with the use of kitchen gadgets such as slow cookers and pressure cookers for batch cooking.

Food allergies and intolerances can significantly impact an athlete's nutritional intake and performance. Athletes with food allergies should identify and avoid trigger foods while ensuring that they're meeting their nutritional needs. In cases of severe-to-life threatening allergies, athletes should carry an epinephrine auto-injector and educate their coaches and teammates on its use.

Athletes with intolerances or restrictions such as lactose intolerance or celiac disease should work with a sports dietitian to ensure they're receiving proper nutrients and amounts. While proper nutrition plays a significant role in optimizing physical and mental performance, it can also prevent injuries and aid injury recovery.

Adequate intake of vitamins and minerals such as calcium, vitamin D, and vitamin C can promote bone health and prevent stress fractures and other injuries.

Injury prevention can also be aided by consuming a diet that is anti-inflammatory, rich in antioxidants, and low in refined sugars and saturated fats. Additionally, some studies suggest that the anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3 fatty acids found in fatty fish may help prevent inflammation and muscle soreness, aiding in injury prevention and recovery.

Beyond physical health, proper nutrition can also impact mental health, mood, and cognitive function. Regular meals and snacking can help regulate blood sugar levels, preventing mood swings and anxiety.

Additionally, consuming foods rich in nutrients such as Omega-3 and B vitamins contributes to cognitive function, better mood management, and improved motivation and confidence.

Proper fueling can also prevent fatigue, enabling athletes to maintain the mental focus and drive needed to reach their athletic goals.

While this article provides a comprehensive guide to nutrition for adaptive athletes, working with a sports dietitian who specializes in adaptive sports can further enhance nutrition plans.

Sports dietitians can provide personalized nutrition plans tailored to individual needs, oversee supplement intake, and offer guidance on handling nutritional challenges such as traveling to competitions or dealing with allergies or intolerances.

Overall, proper nutrition is critical for adaptive athletes to perform at their best, optimize their training and competition outcomes, and support injury prevention and recovery. Hoffman et al. In other activities such as shorter duration endurance events, hydration needs for an event can be approximated during training through methods such as taking body weight before and after training at a duration, intensity, and environment that mimics that of a competition [ ].

However, because reductions in body mass can be attributed to substantial breakdown of body tissues such as adipose and muscle [ 11 ] and increases in weight can result from reduced diuresis as well as decreases in intracellular osmolytes including glycogen, proteins, and triglycerides, this would be an ineffective strategy for ultra-endurance athletes.

The reduced diuresis is induced by activation of vasopressin secretion and the angiotensin—renin—aldosterone mechanism during exercise and the decreases in intracellular osmolytes causes a shift of water to the extracellular compartment during very prolonged exercise [ ].

With the complexity of hydration during these events, hyper-hydration has become increasingly common and is the most reported medical complication to occur during ultra-distance triathlons [ ].

This is crucial as this can lead to the life-threatening case of hyponatremia by altering the blood serum to sodium ratio [ ]. In fact, this shift appears to be a primary result of fluid overload and is unrelated to sodium losses [ ].

Urine color see Fig. However, it should be noted that urine concentration i. Costa et al. found that it is in fact less reliable than relying on thirst as an indicator of hydration status [ 15 ].

It is important to note here that substrate metabolism is also altered as a result of dehydration during exercise resulting in greater reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source [ ].

Although the fatigue associated with dehydration is mainly a result of hyperthermia it also results in lower FFA uptake and higher muscle glycogen utilization [ ].

Therefore, not only is maintaining hydration important for sustaining an optimal body temperature, preventing immediate fatigue, but it is also important to spare glycogen, potentially preventing or delaying later onset of fatigue.

Urine color as an indication of hydration status reproduced with permission from [ ]. Because sweat also contains sodium one might argue that sodium supplementation may be of importance during ultra-endurance walking and running events. Although past recommendations suggest a sodium intake of 1. This is likely due to the adaptations that increase sodium bioavailability and prevent losses e.

sweat, urine, and feces which take place in response to periods of sodium deprivation or restriction [ — ]. In fact, sodium supplements taken in excess can result in inadequate weight loss and even unnecessary weight gain [ ].

This ultimately results in fluid overload and decrements to performance as discussed above. It is therefore recommended that to best maintain hydration, athletes drink to thirst without using sodium supplementation beyond that taken in food and fluids, even when exercising in high ambient temperatures [ ].

Other recommendations for maintaining euhydration during the event pertain to both the use of carbohydrate supplemented beverages and fluid intake before the event. This will allow enough time for excretion of any excess as urine before the event allowing for a balanced bodily fluid level going into the activity [ 45 ].

Vitamin and mineral considerations are crucial when participating in and training for ultra-endurance activities. When it comes to athletic performance, these micronutrients are particularly important for energy production, hemoglobin synthesis, maintenance of bone health, adequate immune function, and protection of the body against oxidative damage.

They also assist in important physiological processes related to synthesis, recovery, and adaptation to exercise. Because of this, exercise may increase the turnover and loss of these nutrients resulting in greater dietary intakes being required. Some vitamins and minerals that athletes need to pay particular attention to are calcium, vitamins D, C, E, and the B vitamins, iron, zinc, magnesium, as well as, beta carotene and selenium for their antioxidant properties.

Calcium and vitamin D play important roles in growth, maintenance, and repair of bone tissue as well as regulation of nerve conduction, and development and homeostasis in skeletal muscle. A deficiency in both or either calcium and vitamin D increases the risk of low bone-mineral density and stress fractures [ ].

Calcium can be obtained from food; however, vitamin D is mainly synthesized through sunlight. In those with suboptimal levels stated in Table 2 , supplementation may be necessary. Current vitamin D supplement recommendations suggest — IU per day for athletes [ ].

B vitamins play a role in energy production and the building and repair of muscle tissue. There is some data suggesting that to obtain optimal health and performance, highly active athletes may need to double the current recommended amounts of these B vitamins though it is likely that these needs are being met with increased energy intakes [ ].

Of particular consideration, however, are vitamin B12 and folate. A deficiency in either of these nutrients results in anemia which can greatly reduce time to fatigue and therefore endurance performance [ ].

Because vitamin B12 is obtained through animal products, such as meat and dairy, athletes such as vegetarians or vegans may need to consume supplements with this vitamin.

Iron deficiency will also result in anemia, reducing the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen. A deficiency in iron is common among those engaged in prolonged activity due to up-regulation of the hormone hepcidin. Because of this, ultra-endurance athletes should pay particular attention to their iron consumption and obtain regular blood tests to check their ferritin status.

Iron absorption can be improved by consuming heme iron found in meat products with non-heme iron found in plant products and vitamin C with sources of iron [ , ]. Zinc plays a role in muscle repair, energy metabolism, and immune status.

A deficiency in zinc can result in disrupted thyroid hormone levels, affecting metabolic rate and performance [ ]. It can also reduce cardiorespiratory function, muscle strength, and endurance [ ].

Athletes are at high risk of inadequate zinc levels [ ] and should therefore strive to achieve adequate zinc intake through zinc-rich foods. Zinc-rich foods include shellfish, green leafy vegetables, and seeds. If supplementation is required, athletes should receive guidance from their health care provider.

Magnesium supports the proper functioning of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems [ ]. Deficiency can cause multiple symptoms resulting in decreased performance as it is linked to many pathological conditions of the cardiovascular, skeletal, and nervous systems [ ].

Ultra-endurance athletes are at increased risk of this deficiency due to increased urinary and sweat losses induced by magnesium redistribution within the body during prolonged intense activity [ ]. Ultra-endurance athletes should have their blood levels of magnesium tested regularly and self-monitor for common symptoms of hypomagnesaemia such as muscle cramps.

Supplementation with magnesium is recommended if necessary and dosage should be determined under the discretion of their healthcare provider to avoid toxicity. Exercise can induce a release of free radicals or reactive oxygen species which have the ability to modify lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids in the body [ ].

These modifications are collectively known as oxidative damage or oxidative stress and have been linked to negative health outcomes such as insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, cardiac dysfunction, and injury [ ].

Antioxidant vitamins and minerals, such as vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and selenium can be used to mitigate these effects. These nutrients act in different ways to either remove oxidative species or prevent their reactions from happening [ ].

However, because oxidative species also have some beneficial effects on the body, their function is not to completely eliminate these processes, but to keep them at homeostatic, and thus optimal, levels.

Therefore, there is a threshold to which antioxidants can provide benefits for performance, health, and recovery. Research on ultra-endurance athletes has demonstrated that their need to prevent oxidative damage is higher given their extraordinary exercise volume [ ].

Although more research is needed to examine the effects of these antioxidant supplements during and immediately prior to an event, current evidence suggests little to no benefit [ , ]. It is important to note that although ultra-endurance athletes may benefit from ample intakes of antioxidant vitamins and minerals that exceed the current recommendations for the general population, they should be cautioned not to consume these nutrients at levels above the ULs.

High doses above the UL can also result in pro-oxidative effects, causing risks of decreased performance, recovery and health [ ]. Other antioxidants which have recently been investigated for their effects on endurance performance include polyphenols with the most popularly researched being quercetin, catechins, and resveratrol.

These polyphenols are organic chemical compounds mainly found in plants that have strong antioxidant properties [ ].

They have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory, cardioprotection, and anti-carcinogenic properties in clinical populations [ ].

However, few studies have investigated the effects of these polyphenols on performance, particularly in an ultra-endurance population. Catechins are commonly found in plants such as green tea and cacao.

Some human studies have shown positive effects for endurance including V02 max [ ], fat oxidation, and insulin sensitivity [ ] in an untrained population; however, studies on trained subjects are yet to show benefits [ — ].

It is unlikely that supplemental catechins would be beneficial to ultra-endurance performance. Resveratrol is present in concentrated quantities in grapes. With one exception, studies to date have only been performed on rodents, and the effects on performance range from extremely beneficial to extremely detrimental [ — ].

Taken together, these studies would suggest that resveratrol benefits trained rodents and is potentially harmful in untrained rodents. The only human study was performed in untrained elderly participants and the effect demonstrated that supplementation was also potentially harmful through blunting of cardiovascular training adaptations to endurance exercise [ ].

Further research is needed before supplemental resveratrol should be taken by ultra-endurance athletes. Quercetin is found in foods such as red onion, dill, apples and capers and has been studied more extensively than other polyphenols.

It provides many health benefits in humans [ ] and has shown to encourage mitochondrial growth in rodents [ ]. Although quercetin supplementation shows potential endurance performance benefits in cell culture and in vivo animal studies [ , ], research on its use as a supplement in humans are less clear.

Some studies have reported increased endurance exercise capacity and performance in humans following supplementation with quercetin [ — ]; however, many have failed to find benefits [ — ]. Of the 2 studies [ , ] on ultra-endurance trained subjects, both have shown no significant benefit.

Nieman et al. No improvements in performance or attenuation of markers of muscle damage, inflammation, increases in plasma cytokines, and alterations in muscle cytokine mRNA expression were found [ ]. Quindry et al. The supplement did not fortify plasma antioxidant levels against ultramarathon-induced oxidative stress in blood plasma or improve performance.

This being said, a meta analysis by Kressler et al. Based on data showing favorable outcomes for supplemental quercetin [ — ], a daily dosage of mg could have small potential benefits and is unlikely to be detrimental for ultra-endurance trained populations.

However, the amounts needed in excess of those recommended for the general population are likely dependent on multiple factors including individual variability, training intensity, and training duration. To determine if ultra-endurance athletes are consuming adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals, they should obtain regular blood tests to ensure blood levels are being maintained at levels that are not only acceptable for general health but are optimal for performance see Table 2.

This may be particularly important during times when their training or nutrition changes. It is important to emphasize that regular adequate intake of vitamins and minerals is required for optimal performance and that consuming extra vitamins and minerals through supplementation immediately before or during an ultra-endurance event has not shown to provide any performance, health or recovery benefits [ , ].

During ultra-endurance activities and corresponding training exercises, food and fluid must be consumed while being active to minimize the energy deficit. Because of this, it is no surprise that GIS are a common issue for these athletes [ ].

Endeavoring to prevent GIS is important as it is one of the most common cited reasons for inadequate intake during events [ , ] and is positively correlated with increasing duration [ ]. Running in particular appears to result in more pronounced GIS than other activities [ ] as well as a dehydrated state compared with a euhydrated state [ ].

There also seems to be an individual predisposition for GI distress during exercise as Pfieffer et al. have determined a positive relationship between GIS during races and history of GI issues both associated with and away from exercise [ , ].

Another common issue in ultra-endurance athletes is reduced appetite, which is closely related to GIS as both are subsequent results of splanchnic ischemia. If the event has no enforced breaks, whole foods may not be an option as they may be too difficult to chew and swallow and could result in GIS.

In this case, intake from fluids is a viable option as not only does it provide the energy but also hydration. With gels, it has been shown that high doses of CHO 1. Against this background, it may be best to determine strategies, such as use of different types of nutritional sources and frequency of consumption to find which methods work best to maximize carbohydrate intake during an event without causing GI distress.

One of the possible ways that this could be done is through coingestion of glucose and fructose as a carbohydrate source rather than one or the other.

Research suggests that this can increase carbohydrate oxidation from an average of 1—1. With the use of gels as a source of carbohydrates, Pfeiffer et al. However, some individuals showed more symptoms with one or the other gel. It should, therefore, be advised that individual athletes, especially those who experience GI problems frequently, test their tolerance during intense training sessions, ideally under conditions similar to those of the races they aim to compete in.

The intake of the nutrients fat, fiber, and protein, have all been linked to GIS during exercise [ ]. However, as the duration of ultra-endurance races increases, these food and drink choices have become less tolerable and appealing [ , ]. Although the evidence of this is mainly anecdotal, intestinal carbohydrate transporters can indeed be up-regulated [ , ] and gastric emptying rates can be enhanced with training [ ].

GIS occur less frequently after adequate training or when relative exercise intensity is reduced [ , ]. Although more research in this area is needed, experimentation with this strategy during training is likely to present little risk and athletes should dedicate at least some time to gut training.

Endurance training itself appears to enhance gastric transit time [ ], and higher energy intakes during training further enhance this rate [ ].

Cox et al. The higher rates were attributed to improved absorption, which provides evidence that the gut is indeed adaptable and that this could be used as a practical method to increase exogenous carbohydrate oxidation. This could lead to improvements in performance through greater fuel availability as discussed in preceding sections.

There is a paucity of agreed-on and concrete nutrition best practices for ultraendurance runners and even less demarcating such by event type. From a macronutrients perspective, ultra-endurance athletes need to ensure adequate intake. However, the practicality of such recommendations needs to be considered on an individual basis and the importance of rehearsal of an individualized nutrition strategy prior to competition cannot be overemphasized.

As far as is necessary, and in keeping with advice from healthcare providers, ultra-endurance athletes may use supplements to support training and events performance and aid in recovery. While some recommendations presented are prescriptive in nature based on the findings of various studies, ultra-endurance athletes are encouraged to apply them within the context of their particular training regiment, body mass composition, and corresponding physiological needs.

All the literature reviewed indicate that ultra-endurance athletes must take great care in attending to their nutritional needs to maintain good health, promote optimal performance, and reduce the likelihood of injuries.

Proper nutrition will result in decreased energy depletion, better performance, and accelerated recovery. With the growing international appeal of ultra-endurance events, significant research is needed to promote the health and wellbeing of athletes.

More longitudinal studies are needed to ascertain the precise nutritional and environmental conditions under which athletes perform most optimally based on age, gender, type of event, body type, and other physiological factors. Knechtle B. Nutrition in ultra-endurance racing—aspects of energy balance, fluid balance and exercise-associated hyponatremia.

Medicina Sportiva. Google Scholar. Brown JS, Connolly DA. Selected human physiological responses during extreme heat: the badwater ultramarathon. J Strength Cond Res. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Bircher S, Enggist A, Jehle T, Knechtle B.

Effects of an extreme endurance race on energy balance and body composition—a case study. J Sports Sci Med. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Knechtle B, Bisig A, Schlapfer F, Zwyssig D. Energy metabolism in long-term endurance sports: a case study.

doi: Article Google Scholar. Knechtle B, Zimmermann K, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Kohler G. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Hulton AT, Lahart I, Williams KL, Godfrey R, Charlesworth S, Wilson M, Whyte G. Energy expenditure in the race across america RAAM. Int J Sports Med. Kruseman M, Bucher S, Bovard M, Kayser B, Bovier PA.

Nutrient intake and performance during a mountain marathon: an observational study. Eur J Appl Psychol. CAS Google Scholar. Glace BW, Murphy CA, McHugh MP. Food intake and electrolyte status of ultramarathoners competing in extreme heat.

J Am Coll Nutr. Dempster S, Britton R, Murray A, Costa RJ. Case study: nutrition and hydration status during 4, km of running over 78 consecutive days.

Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. Clemente-Suarez VJ. Psychophysiological response and energy balance during a h ultraendurance mountain running event. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. PubMed Google Scholar. Paulin S, Roberts J, Roberts M, Davis I.

A case study evaluation of competitors undertaking an antarctic ultra-endurance event: nutrition, hydration and body composition variables. Extrem Physiol Med. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Hill RJ, Davies PS. Energy expenditure during 2 week of an ultra-endurance run around Australia.

Med Sci Sports Exerc. Koehler K, Huelsemann F, de Marees M, Braunstein B, Braun H, Schaenzer W. Case study: simulated and real-life energy expenditure during a 3-week expedition. Costa RJ, Gill SK, Hankey J, Wright A, Marczak S.

Perturbed energy balance and hydration status in ultra-endurance runners during a 24 h ultra-marathon. Br J Nutr. Costa RJ, Teixeira A, Rama L, Swancott AJ, Hardy LD, Lee B, Camões-Costa V, Gill S, Waterman JP, Freeth EC, Barrett E, Hankey J, Marczak S, Valero-Burgos E, Scheer V, Thake CD.

Water and sodium intake habits and status of ultra-endurance runners during a multi-stage ultra-marathon conducted in a hot ambient environment: an observational field based study. Nutr J. LaTulippe—a case study of a one hundred and sixty kilometre runner.

Br J Sports Med. Knechtle B, Senn O, Imoberdorf R, Joleska I, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Maintained total body water content and serum sodium concentrations despite body mass loss in female ultra-runners drinking ad libitum during a km race. Asia Pac J Clinl Nutr.

Kimber NE, Ross JJ, Mason SL, Speedy DB. Energy balance during an ironman triathlon in male and female triathletes. Hew-Butler TD, Sharwood K, Collins M, Speedy D, Noakes T.

Sodium supplementation is not required to maintain serum sodium concentrations during an ironman triathlon. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar.

No fluid overload in male ultra-runners during a km ultra-run. Res Sports Med. Eden BD, Abernethy PJ. Nutritional intake during an ultraendurance running race.

Int J Sport Nutr. McCubbin AJ, Cox GR, Broad EM. Case study: nutrition planning and intake for marathon des sables—a series of five runners. Edwards JE, Lindeman AK, Mikesky AE, Stager JM. Energy balance in highly trained female endurance runners. Stuempfle KJ, Hoffman MD, Weschler LB, Rogers IR, Hew-Butler T.

Race diet of finishers and non-finishers in a mile km mountain footrace. Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rust CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Costa RJ, Snipe R, Camoes-Costa V, Scheer V, Murray A. The impact of gastrointestinal symptoms and dermatological injuries on nutritional intake and hydration status during ultramarathon events.

Sports Med. Hoffman MD, Stuempfle KJ. Is sodium supplementation necessary to avoid dehydration during prolonged exercise in the heat?

Sodium supplementation and exercise-associated hyponatremia during prolonged exercise. Winger JM, Hoffman MD, Hew-Butler TD, Stuempfle KJ, Dugas JP, Fogard K, Dugas LR.

The effect of physiology and hydration beliefs on race behavior and postrace sodium in km ultramarathon finishers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. Singh A, Pelletier PA, Deuster PA. Dietary requirements for ultra-endurance exercise.

Hoffman MD, Pasternak A, Rogers IR, Khodaee M, Hill JC, Townes DA, Scheer B, Krabak BJ, Basset P, Lipman GS. Medical services at ultra-endurance foot races in remote environments: medical issues and consensus guidelines. Scheer BV, Murray A. Al Andalus ultra trail: an observation of medical interventions during a km, 5-day ultramarathon stage race.

Clin J Sport Med. Ramos-Campo DJ, Avila-Gandia V, Alacid F, Soto-Mendez F, Alcaraz PE, Lopez-Roman FJ, Rubio-Arias JA. Muscle damage, physiological changes, and energy balance in ultra-endurance mountain-event athletes.

Fallon KE, Broad E, Thompson MW, Reull PA. Nutritional and fluid intake in a km ultramarathon. Stellingwerff T. Contemporary nutrition approaches to optimize elite marathon performance. Hoffman MD, Hew-Butler T, Stuempfle KJ. Exercise-associated hyponatremia and hydration status in km ultramarathoners.

Khodaee M, Ansari M. Common ultramarathon injuries and illnesses: race day management. Current Sports Med Rep. Clark N, Tobin J Jr, Ellis C. Feeding the ultraendurance athlete: practical tips and a case study. J Am Diet Assoc. CAS PubMed Google Scholar.

Essén B. Intramuscular substrate utilization during prolonged exercise. Ann NY Acad Sci. Carbohydrate dependence during marathon running.

Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol. Ørtenblad N, Westerblad H, Nielsen J. Muscle glycogen stores and fatigue. J Physiol. Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar. Burke LM, Kiens B, Ivy JL.

Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery. J Sports Sci. Burke LM, Hawley JA. Carbohydrate and exercise.

Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. Consolazio CF, Matoush LO, Johnson HL, Krzywicki HJ, Daws TA, Isaac GJ.

Effects of high-carbohydrate diets on performance and clinical symptomatology after rapid ascent to high altitude. Fed Proc. Oliver SJ, Golja P, Macdonald JH. Carbohydrate supplementation and exercise performance at high altitude: a randomized controlled trial. High Alt Med Biol.

Burke LM, Cox GR, Culmmings NK, Desbrow B. Guidelines for daily carbohydrate intake: do athletes achieve them? Mahon E, Hackett A, Stott T, George K, Davies I. Macronutrient consumption prior to, and during, a mountain marathon.

Am J Sports Sci. Drewnowski A. Energy density, palatability, and satiety: implications for weight control. Nutr Rev. Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion.

Saris WH, van Erp-Baart MA, Brouns F, Westerterp KR, Hoor F. Study on food intake and energy expenditure during extreme sustained exercise: the tour de france. Pfeiffer B, Stellingwerff T, Zaltas E, Jeukendrup AE. CHO oxidation from a CHO gel compared with a drink during exercise. Oxidation of solid versus liquid CHO sources during exercise.

Achten J, Gleeson M, Jeukendrup AE. Determination of the exercise intensity that elicits maximal fat oxidation. Burke LM. Sports Medicine. Article PubMed Central Google Scholar. Volek JS, Noakes T, Phinney SD. Rethinking fat as a fuel for endurance exercise. Eur J Sport Sci. Phinney SD, Bistrian BR, Evans WJ, Gervino E, Blackburn GL.

The human metabolic response to chronic ketosis without caloric restriction: preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation. Metab Clin Exp. Howarth KR, Phillips SM, Macdonald MJ, Richards D, Moreau NA, Gibala MJ.

Effect of glycogen availability on human skeletal muscle protein turnover during exercise and recovery. Article CAS Google Scholar. Jeukendrup A, Gleeson M. Vitamins and minerals. In: Bahrke MS, editor. Sport nutrition: an introduction to energy production and performance. London: Human Kinetics; Pendergast DR, Leddy JJ, Venkatraman JT.

A perspective on fat intake in athletes. Horvath PJ, Besch SR, Kilanowski C, Leddy J, Pendergast DR. Endurance of male college age long distance runners with energy supplementation using peanuts or a high carbohydrate energy bar.

Am Coll of Nutr. Rennie MJ, Winder WW, Holloszy JO. A sparing effect of increased plasma fatty acids on muscle and liver glycogen content in the exercising rat. Biochem J. Clegg ME. Medium-chain triglycerides are advantageous in promoting weight loss although not beneficial to exercise performance.

Int J Food Sci Nutr. Angus DJ, Hargreaves M, Dancey J, Febbraio MA. Effect of carbohydrate or carbohydrate plus medium-chain triglyceride ingestion on cycling time trial performance. Horowitz JF, Mora-Rodriguez R, Byerley LO, Coyle EF. Preexercise medium-chain triglyceride ingestion does not alter muscle glycogen use during exercise.

Jeukendrup AE, Saris WH, Brouns F, Halliday D, Wagenmakers JM. Effects of carbohydrate CHO and fat supplementation on CHO metabolism during prolonged exercise. Misell LM, Lagomarcino ND, Schuster V, Kern M.

Chronic medium-chain triacylglycerol consumption and endurance performance in trained runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. Goedecke JH, Clark VR, Noakes TD, Lambert EV. The effects of medium-chain triacylglycerol and carbohydrate ingestion on ultra-endurance exercise performance. Vistisen B, Nybo L, Xu X, Hoy CE, Kiens B.

Minor amounts of plasma medium-chain fatty acids and no improved time trial performance after consuming lipids.

African mango seed extract benefits alterations in substrate availability modify the immediate exercise response and when Endutance over Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes and weeks, modulate many adaptive processes in skeletal qdaptive that ultimately underpin the phenotype-specific characteristics observed in highly Nutrient timing for performance athletes. Macronutrient NEdurance rapidly alters the concentration Glutamine and muscle repair blood-borne Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes and hormones, causing marked perturbations in the storage profile of skeletal muscle aeaptive other insulin-sensitive tissues. In turn, muscle energy status adaptivee profound effects on nutritjon fuel metabolism and patterns of fuel utilization during training, as well as acute regulatory processes underlying gene expression and cell signalling. As such, these nutrient-exercise interactions have the potential to activate or inhibit many biochemical pathways with putative roles in training adaptation. This paper focuses on how nutrient availability can optimize adaptations to endurance, strength and repeated sprint activities that are common to the majority of Olympic sports. In real life, however, competitive athletes preparing for the majority of Olympic sports follow an intricate periodization of both diet and training load in their competitive build-up Burke, Support for such a practice is slowly emerging: several investigations have reported that when endurance-based training sessions are commenced with low carbohydrate availability, training adaptation is augmented to a greater extent than when similar workouts are undertaken with normal glycogen stores Hawley and Burke, ; Hawley et al.

Video

The Best Diet For Endurance Athletes in 2023 The significance acaptive carbohydrates fro Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes Endurancf has Targeted fat percentage well established, whereas the role of protein qdaptive the adaptive nutritjon with endurance Endurancd is unclear. Therefore, the aim of adaptvie perspective is to discuss the current evidence on the role Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes dietary protein and the ntrition response with endurance training. On Endurance nutrition for adaptive athletes metabolic level, a Diabetes management technology bout of endurance training stimulates the oxidation of several amino acids. Although the amount of amino acids as part of total energy expenditure during exercise is relatively low compared to other substrates e. A low supply of amino acids relative to that of carbohydrates may also have negative effects on the synthesis of capillaries, synthesis and turn-over of mitochondrial proteins and proteins involved in oxygen transport including hamoglobin and myoglobin. Thus far, the scientific evidence demonstrating the significance of dietary protein is mainly derived from research with resistance exercise training regimes. This is not surprising since the general paradigm states that endurance training has insignificant effects on skeletal muscle growth.