Over 1 year, participants lost an average of 11—22 lb 5—9 kg. It might also increase heart rate and blood pressure. Contraindications: This medication is not recommended for people with a history of seizures, end-stage renal disease, pregnancy, and current use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioids, or certain other prescription medications.

Setmelanotide, sold as Imcivree, is in a class of medications known as melanocortin 4 MC4 receptor agonists. How it works: People with specific genetic mutations may experience insufficient activation of the MC4 receptor in the brain, which could contribute to obesity.

Setmelanotide works by increasing the activation of this receptor, leading to reduced hunger, decreased calorie intake, and increased metabolism , all of which could promote weight loss. Participants also experienced a significant reduction in hunger with no serious treatment-related adverse events reported.

Another small study in children, adolescents, and adults found that setmelanotide significantly improved quality of life as early as 5 weeks after starting treatment, which could be related to reduced hunger and body weight. Side effects: Some of the most common side effects of setmelanotide include injection site reactions, hyperpigmentation , nausea, headache, diarrhea, and stomach or back pain.

Fatigue, vomiting, and depression have also been reported. Contraindications: This medication is not recommended for people with renal impairment, and those who are pregnant or breastfeeding. There are several anorectics, or appetite suppressants , available. However, phentermine Adipex-P or Lomaira is the most commonly prescribed.

Phentermine is taken orally and requires a prescription from a doctor or other healthcare professional. How it works: These medications reduce appetite by altering levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, which can lead to weight loss.

Effectiveness: One study in 3, people compared the effectiveness of several medications for obesity and found that people taking phentermine lost the highest percentage of body weight over 12 weeks. Those taking phentermine lost an average of 8.

However, keep in mind that these medications are only recommended for short-term use, as you can build up a tolerance after several weeks, resulting in decreased effectiveness. Side effects: Potential side effects may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps.

Other severe side effects have been reported and require immediate medical attention, including shortness of breath, chest pain, and swelling of the lower extremities.

Contraindications: This medication is not recommended for people with a history of heart disease, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, glaucoma, diabetes, pregnancy, and certain prescription medications.

Most weight loss medications are approved for adults with obesity or overweight and at least one weight-related condition, such as:. Similarly, setmelanotide Imcivree , is intended to treat obesity caused by certain genetic disorders.

Keep in mind that weight loss medications are not suitable for everyone, including people who are pregnant, those with certain health conditions, or individuals taking specific medications. A healthcare professional can provide guidance on whether you might be a candidate for a prescription, depending on your personal goals, medical history, and health status.

Contact a trusted healthcare professional, like your OB-GYN, before taking any weight loss medications or supplements. Some digital weight loss platforms, including Ro and Calibrate, include GLP-1 medications in their treatment plans for people who meet certain eligibility criteria.

You can read our comprehensive reviews of Calibrate and Ro Health to learn more. Studies also suggest that people with higher body weights are disproportionately more likely to experience disordered eating and eating disorder symptoms.

These behaviors may indicate a disordered relationship with food or an ED. Disordered eating and EDs can affect anyone, regardless of gender identity, race, age, body size, socioeconomic status, or other identities.

They can be caused by any combination of biological, social, cultural, and environmental factors — not just by exposure to diet culture. GLP-1 agonists are currently the most effective anti-obesity medications and are considered safe for long-term use. Currently, only liraglutide Saxenda , semaglutide Wegovy , and tirzepatide Zepbound are approved for weight loss, though some other GLP-1 drugs may be prescribed off-label.

Still, keep in mind that individual results can vary based on many factors, including your diet, health status, and activity level. In addition to maximizing your potential results, it can increase the likelihood of maintaining weight loss in the long term.

If considered medically necessary, insurance companies may cover certain prescription weight loss medications.

Some manufacturers also offer savings cards, which can help lower your copay. Ozempic and Wegovy are two different brands of the same drug, semaglutide.

However, there are differences in the recommended dosage and how each is administered. Additionally, Wegovy is FDA approved for weight management.

Saxenda liraglutide , Wegovy semaglutide , and tirzepatide Zepbound are three GLP-1 medications recently approved for weight loss.

Other GLP-1 medications, such as Ozempic semaglutide , are also sometimes prescribed off-label for weight management. Prescription medications have strong evidence to support their effectiveness for meaningful weight loss. Additionally, though they can promote weight loss and may even offer other health benefits, note that these medications are not suitable for everyone and can lead to weight regain once you stop taking them.

A doctor or other trusted healthcare professional can help you determine which is right for you and how to incorporate it into a healthy weight management plan.

Obesity is a chronic condition, and medications are just one part of a treatment plan to help achieve and maintain weight loss. Instead, they should be used only as directed and paired with a balanced diet, healthy lifestyle, and regular physical activity for best results.

Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available.

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A Dietitian Explains. Medically reviewed by Jerlyn Jones, MS MPA RDN LD CLT , Nutrition — By Rachael Ajmera, MS, RD and Kris Gunnars, BSc — Updated on November 20, On this page Approved drugs Effectiveness Prescription drugs Who should use When to talk with a doctor FAQs Bottom line.

How we vet brands and products Healthline only shows you brands and products that we stand behind. Our team thoroughly researches and evaluates the recommendations we make on our site.

To establish that the product manufacturers addressed safety and efficacy standards, we: Evaluate ingredients and composition: Do they have the potential to cause harm? Fact-check all health claims: Do they align with the current body of scientific evidence?

Assess the brand: Does it operate with integrity and adhere to industry best practices? Products containing bitter orange may have significant safety concerns.

Reported adverse effects include chest pain, headache, anxiety, elevated heart rate, musculoskeletal complaints, ventricular fibrillation, ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction, and death [ 34 , 35 ].

However, many of the products with these effects contain multiple herbal ingredients, and the role of bitter orange in these adverse effects cannot be isolated. Some studies indicate that bitter orange and synephrine—as bitter orange extract or pure synephrine—raise blood pressure and heart rate, but other studies show that they do not have these effects [ , 31 , ].

Some researchers have suggested that synephrine might not act directly as a cardiovascular stimulant [ 27 , 37 , 39 ]. Instead, caffeine, other stimulants in multicomponent formulations, and other constituents of bitter orange or adulterants such as m-synephrine, which is not naturally present in bitter orange might be responsible for its observed effects.

Many dietary supplements promoted for weight loss contain added caffeine or an herbal source—such as guarana Paullinia cupana , kola or cola nut Cola nitida , and yerba maté Ilex paraguariensis —that naturally contains caffeine.

Green tea and other forms of tea also contain caffeine see section on green tea. Some weight-loss supplement labels do not declare the amount of caffeine in the product and only list the herbal ingredients. As a result, consumers might not be aware that the presence of certain herbs means that a product contains caffeine and possibly other stimulants [ 41 ].

Caffeine is a methylxanthine that stimulates the central nervous system, heart, and skeletal muscles. It also increases gastric and colonic activity and acts as a diuretic [ 42 , 43 ]. Caffeine has a half-life of about 6 hours; blood levels increase within 15—45 minutes of consumption, and they peak at around 60 minutes [ 44 ].

Caffeine increases thermogenesis in a linear, dose-dependent fashion in humans [ 45 ]. A mg dose of caffeine, for example, increased energy expenditure by a mean of 9. Caffeine might also contribute to weight loss by increasing fat oxidation through sympathetic activation of the central nervous system and by increasing fluid loss [ 41 , 45 ].

Habitual use of caffeine however, leads to caffeine tolerance and a diminishment of these effects [ 41 , 43 ]. Caffeine increases energy expenditure and fat oxidation [ 44 ].

However, the extent to which these effects affect weight loss is less clear, partly because clinical trials examining the effects of caffeine on weight loss have all been short and have used combination products.

After 6 months, those in the treatment group lost significantly more weight mean weight loss 5. A product containing caffeine plus glucosyl hesperidin G-hesperidin, a flavonone glycoside found mainly in citrus fruits reduced abdominal fat and BMI in a clinical trial in Japan [ 47 ].

In this study, 75 healthy men and women who were overweight BMI 24—30 received one of five treatments daily for 12 weeks while maintaining their regular lifestyle and eating habits.

The five treatments were placebo and four formulations of 0, 25, 50, or 75 mg caffeine plus mg G-hesperidin.

The 75 mg caffeine plus G-hesperidin significantly reduced BMI by a mean of 0. The 50 or 75 mg caffeine plus G-hesperidin also significantly reduced abdominal fat compared to placebo, whereas the G-hesperidin alone or with only 25 mg caffeine did not significantly affect BMI or abdominal fat.

These findings indicate that the higher doses of caffeine might be responsible for the observed effects. At the end of the study, participants taking the herbal product lost a mean of 5.

Data from a year prospective observational study provide some insight into the long-term association between caffeine intake and body weight [ 49 ].

On average, participants gained some weight during the study, but men who increased their caffeine intake during the 12 years of follow-up gained a mean of 0. For women, the corresponding mean difference in weight gain was 0. However, further research is needed to confirm this finding.

For comparison, an 8-ounce cup of brewed coffee contains about 85— mg caffeine. Caffeine can cause sleep disturbances and feelings of nervousness, jitteriness, and shakiness.

Combining caffeine with other stimulants, such as bitter orange and ephedrine, can potentiate these adverse effects. Calcium is an essential mineral that is stored in the bones and teeth, where it supports their structure and function.

Calcium is required for vascular contraction and vasodilation, muscle function, nerve transmission, intracellular signaling, and hormonal secretion [ 56 ]. Several studies have correlated higher calcium intakes with lower body weight or less weight gain over time [ ].

Two explanations have been proposed. First, high calcium intakes might reduce calcium concentrations in fat cells by decreasing the production of parathyroid hormone and the active form of vitamin D.

Decreased intracellular calcium concentrations, in turn, might increase fat breakdown and discourage fat accumulation in these cells [ 59 ].

Second, calcium from food or supplements might bind to small amounts of dietary fat in the digestive tract and prevent absorption of this fat [ 59 , 62 , 63 ].

Dairy products, in particular, might contain additional components that have even greater effects on body weight than their calcium content alone would suggest [ 60 , ]. For example, protein and other components of dairy products might modulate appetite-regulating hormones [ 61 ].

However, the results from clinical trials examining the effects of calcium on body weight have been largely negative. Compared to placebo, calcium supplementation for 2 years had no clinically significant effects on weight.

The authors of four reviews of published studies on the effects of calcium from supplements or dairy products on weight management reached similar conclusions [ ]. These reviews include a evidence report from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality whose authors concluded that, overall, clinical trial results do not support an effect of calcium supplementation on weight [ 70 ].

In addition, a meta-analysis of 41 randomized controlled trials found no benefit of calcium supplementation or increased dairy food consumption for body weight or body fat [ 73 ]. A meta-analysis of 33 randomized trials and longitudinal studies lasting 12 weeks to 6 years found that calcium from foods or supplements had no overall effect on body weight [ 74 ].

However, in subgroup analyses, calcium did reduce body weight in some groups, including children, adolescents, adult men, premenopausal women, women older than 60, and people with normal BMI [ 74 ].

Overall, the results from clinical trials do not support a clear link between higher calcium intakes and lower body weight, prevention of weight gain, or weight loss. High intakes of calcium can cause constipation and might interfere with the absorption of iron and zinc, although this effect is not well established.

High intakes of calcium from supplements, but not foods, have been associated with an increased risk of kidney stones [ 56 , ]. Capsaicinoids give chili peppers their characteristic pungent flavor. Capsaicin is the most abundant and well-studied capsaicinoid [ 78 ]. Capsaicin and other capsaicinoids have been proposed to have anti-obesity effects via their ability to increase energy expenditure and lipid oxidation, attenuate postprandial insulin response, increase satiety, and reduce appetite and energy intake [ ].

Other research suggests that capsaicin increases satiety by inducing gastrointestinal distress e. Most research on capsaicin and other capsaicinoids focuses on their effects on energy intake and appetite, rather than body weight.

A meta-analysis of eight randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials evaluated the effects of capsaicinoids on ad libitum energy intake in a total of participants who had a normal body weight or were moderately overweight [ 78 ]. Doses of capsaicinoids ranged from 0.

Overall, consuming capsaicinoids significantly reduced energy intake by a mean of 74 kcal per meal; body weight was not assessed, so the impact of this calorie reduction on weight loss cannot be quantified.

The authors noted that the results suggest that at least 2 mg capsaicinoids are needed to reduce calorie intake but that the studies were very heterogeneous. However, the calorie reductions did not significantly affect body weight at either 6 weeks or 12 weeks.

It might also increase serum insulin and reduce high-density lipoprotein HDL cholesterol levels. Otherwise, capsaicin and other capsaicinoids appear to be safe.

Research is underway to reduce the pungency and chili taste associated with capsaicin while retaining its potential biological effects [ 81 ]. Carnitine is the generic term for several compounds, including L-carnitine itself, several acylcarnitines e.

It is composed of the amino acids lysine and methionine [ 84 ]. Carnitine is naturally present in animal products such as meat, fish, poultry, and milk and dairy products; small amounts are present in some plant foods.

Humans synthesize carnitine from its constituent amino acids, so dietary carnitine intake is not necessary. Almost all cells of the body contain carnitine, which transports fatty acids into the mitochondria and acts as a cofactor for fatty acid beta-oxidation [ 85 ].

Because of these effects, carnitine has been proposed as a weight-loss agent. A systematic review and meta-analysis combined the results from nine carnitine supplementation clinical trials in adults including the two described above that assessed weight loss [ 85 ]. The trials included a total of participants.

In eight trials, the daily carnitine doses ranged from 1. Overall, study participants who received carnitine supplements lost an average of 1. Additional research on carnitine for weight loss is warranted.

Rarer side effects include muscle weakness in patients with uremia and seizures in those with seizure disorders. Some research indicates that intestinal bacteria metabolize carnitine to form trimethylamine N-oxide TMAO , a substance that might increase the risk of cardiovascular disease [ 91 ].

This effect appears to be more pronounced in people who consume meat than in vegans or vegetarians. The implications of this effect are not well understood and require more research.

Chitosan is a manufactured polysaccharide that is commercially prepared from the exoskeletons of crustaceans. It is purported to promote weight loss by binding to some dietary fat in the digestive tract, preventing its absorption [ 16 , 41 ]. Chitosan might also decrease cholesterol absorption [ 16 ].

Chitosan capsules taken before meals total of 2. However, the amount of fat that the chitosan trapped would result in a loss of only 1 lb body fat over about 7 months.

Chitosan had no significant effect on fecal fat excretion in the women compared to the control group. At the end of the study, those in the treatment group lost a mean of 1 kg body weight compared to a mean weight gain of 1. In this study, chitosan treatment reduced body weight mean weight loss about 2.

The authors of a Cochrane Review that included 13 trials examining the effect of chitosan on body weight found that chitosan, when taken for 4 weeks to 6 months, reduced body weight by a mean of 1.

They concluded that chitosan appears to be more effective than placebo for short-term weight loss, but most studies have been of poor quality. The authors also noted that results from high-quality trials indicate that chitosan has minimal effects on body weight, and these effects are probably clinically insignificant.

The adverse effects of chitosan are minor and primarily involve the gastrointestinal tract. They include flatulence, bloating, mild nausea, constipation, indigestion, and heartburn [ 93 , 95 , 96 ]. Because chitosan is derived from shellfish, people who are allergic to shellfish could theoretically be allergic to chitosan [ 97 ].

The trivalent form of chromium chromium III is an essential trace mineral that potentiates the action of insulin. Dietary supplements commonly contain chromium in the form of chromium picolinate, which consists of chromium and picolinic acid, although they might also contain other forms, including chromium nicotinate and chromium yeast [ 99 ].

Poor chromium status might contribute to impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes [ 98 ]. Researchers have hypothesized that chromium supplements increase lean muscle mass and promote fat loss, but study results have been equivocal [ 41 , ].

Some research indicates that these supplements might also reduce food intake, hunger levels, and fat cravings [ ], although data on these effects are sparse. Several studies have evaluated the effects of chromium supplements, usually in the form of chromium picolinate, on weight loss.

Six of the trials included resistance or weight training, and three did not. Chromium picolinate supplementation reduced body weight by 1. Also in , a systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials including most of the trials evaluated in the Cochrane Review examined the effects of chromium supplementation in a total of individuals with overweight or obesity [ 99 ].

The authors concluded that daily doses of to 1, mcg chromium for 8 to 26 weeks reduce body weight by 0. Like the authors of the Cochrane Review, these authors noted that the effect is small and of "uncertain" clinical relevance. Similar findings were reported from an earlier meta-analysis of 12 trials [ ].

Trivalent chromium appears to be well tolerated. Adverse effects from clinical trials include watery stools, headache, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, vertigo, and urticaria hives [ 99 , ].

Chromium does not have an established UL because few serious adverse effects have been linked to high intakes [ 98 ]. Hexavalent chromium chromium VI is toxic and not found in food or dietary supplements.

Forskolin is a compound isolated from the roots of Coleus forskohlii , a plant that grows in subtropical areas, such as India and Thailand.

Forskolin is purported to promote weight loss by enhancing lipolysis and reducing appetite [ , ], possibly by stimulating cyclic adenosine monophosphate cAMP production.

This increased cAMP production, in turn, is thought to activate lipase and promote the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue [ 16 ]. Although animal studies indicate that forskolin reduces food intake [ , ], research in humans is very limited and inconclusive.

Compared to placebo, Coleus forskohlii extract had no effect on body weight, appetite, caloric intake, or macronutrient intake. In a study in mice, Coleus forskohlii extract caused dose-dependent hepatotoxicity, but pure forskolin did not have this effect, suggesting that other component s of Coleus forskohlii extract might be responsible for the hepatotoxicity [ ].

Forskolin has not been evaluated in longer term trials. Additional research is needed to better understand the safety and side effects of both short- and long-term use.

Conjugated linoleic acid CLA is a mixture of linoleic acid isomers containing conjugated double bonds that is present mainly in dairy products and beef. The various isomeric forms of CLA include c9,tCLA and t10,cCLA, and it is available in dietary supplements as a triacylglycerol or as a free fatty acid [ ].

Researchers have suggested that CLA enhances weight loss by increasing lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle, reducing lipogenesis, and promoting apoptosis in adipose tissue [ 17 , ]. Although CLA appears to reduce body fat mass in animals [ 17 ], results from human studies suggest that its effects are small and of questionable clinical relevance [ ].

One double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effects of CLA supplementation as a mixture of c9,tCLA and t10,cCLA in male and female volunteers who were overweight BMI 25—30 consuming an ad libitum diet [ ].

Participants received CLA as a free fatty acid 3. At the end of the study, body fat mass dropped by significant amounts with both forms of CLA compared with placebo; reductions, on average, were 6.

Supplementation with CLA as a free fatty acid but not as a triacylglycerol also increased lean body mass compared with placebo.

In another double-blind crossover trial, daily supplementation with CLA oil 6. These findings are similar to those from a randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled trial in 63 adults with overweight or obesity BMI 24—35 that found statistically significant, but small, reductions in mean weight 0.

In contrast, those in the placebo group did not lose a significant amount of body weight 0. However, 3. The authors of a systematic review and meta-analysis of seven randomized controlled trials concluded that taking 2.

However, the authors noted that the "magnitude of these effects is small, and the clinical relevance is uncertain. CLA appears to be well tolerated. Most reported adverse effects are minor, consisting mainly of gastrointestinal disturbances, such as abdominal discomfort and pain, constipation, diarrhea, loose stools, nausea, vomiting, and dyspepsia [ 3 , , , , , ].

CLA might also increase some markers of oxidative stress and decrease breastmilk fat levels, but additional research is needed to confirm these effects [ ]. CLA has been linked to hepatitis in three case reports [ ].

However, whether CLA caused this toxicity cannot be definitively established because the products were not analyzed to rule out the presence of a contaminant. CLA might adversely affect lipid profiles, although results from studies are inconsistent.

Some research indicates that CLA has no major effect on lipid profiles, but other research shows that certain CLA isomers might decrease HDL cholesterol and increase lipoprotein a levels [ , , , ]. The CLA isomer t10,cCLA has also been reported to increase insulin resistance and glycemia in men with obesity and metabolic syndrome [ , ].

Fucoxanthin is a carotenoid in brown seaweed and other algae. Results from laboratory and animal studies suggest that fucoxanthin might promote weight loss by increasing resting energy expenditure and fatty acid oxidation as well as by suppressing adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation [ , ].

Only one clinical trial has been conducted on the possible weight-loss effects of fucoxanthin. This week trial used Xanthigen, a dietary supplement containing brown seaweed extract and pomegranate-seed oil [ ].

Compared to the placebo group, those receiving Xanthigen lost significantly more body weight by the end of the trial mean loss of 6.

The safety of fucoxanthin has not been thoroughly evaluated in humans. Although participants using Xanthigen in the clinical trial described above reported no adverse effects [ ], further investigation of the safety and potential side effects of fucoxanthin at various levels of intake is required.

Garcinia cambogia is a fruit-bearing tree that grows throughout Asia, Africa, and the Polynesian islands [ ]. The pulp and rind of its fruit contain high amounts of hydroxycitric acid HCA , a compound that has been proposed to inhibit lipogenesis, increase hepatic glycogen synthesis, suppress food intake, and reduce weight gain [ 6 , 15 , , , ].

Studies in rats have found that Garcinia cambogia suppresses food intake and inhibits weight gain [ 3 ]. In humans, however, the evidence on whether Garcinia cambogia or HCA is effective for weight loss is conflicting, and any effects it has appear to be small [ 6 , 17 , ].

In one randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 89 women who were mildly overweight mean BMI Women receiving Garcinia cambogia lost significantly more weight 3. However, Garcinia cambogia did not alter appetite, and the study produced no evidence that the supplement affected feelings of satiety.

Participants in both groups lost weight, but the between-group weight-loss differences were not statistically significant. HCA also had no effect on body fat loss. A review and meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials with a total of participants examined the effects of Garcinia cambogia on weight loss [ ].

Therefore, the effect of Garcinia cambogia on body weight remains uncertain. The reported adverse effects of Garcinia cambogia and HCA are generally mild and include headache, nausea, upper respiratory tract symptoms, and gastrointestinal symptoms [ , , ].

However, dietary supplements containing Garcinia cambogia have been implicated in three cases of mania, which might have been caused by the serotonergic activity of HCA [ ]. Symptoms included grandiosity an unrealistic sense of superiority , irritability, pressured speech, and decreased need for sleep.

Reports have also described 10 cases of liver toxicity, resulting in one death and two liver transplants, in people taking products containing Garcinia cambogia [ 43 , ]. In most of these cases, the products contained other botanical ingredients and minerals as well, so the toxicity cannot be definitively attributed to Garcinia cambogia.

Because all clinical trials of Garcinia cambogia and HCA have been short, its long-term safety is unknown. Glucomannan is a soluble dietary fiber derived from konjac root Amorphophallus konjac that can absorb up to 50 times its weight in water [ 16 ].

Like guar gum, glucomannan has been proposed to increase feelings of satiety and fullness and prolong gastric emptying by absorbing water in the gastrointestinal tract [ 16 , , ].

It might also reduce fat and protein absorption in the gut [ 16 ]. Glucomannan appears to have beneficial effects on blood lipids and glucose levels [ ], but its effects on weight loss are inconsistent.

At the end of the study, glucomannan produced significantly greater weight loss mean loss of 2. In another study conducted in the United States, supplementation with glucomannan 3. Eight weeks of glucomannan supplementation 1.

The authors of a systematic review of six randomized controlled trials with a total of participants concluded that 1. Similarly, a meta-analysis of eight trials that included participants found that glucomannan did not significantly affect weight loss compared to placebo [ ].

The authors of an older meta-analysis of 14 studies designed primarily to investigate glucomannan's effect on lipid and blood glucose levels concluded that 1. Little is known about the long-term safety of glucomannan.

Glucomannan appears to be well tolerated for short-term use, with minor adverse effects, including belching, bloating, loose stools, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation, and abdominal discomfort [ , , , ].

The use of tablet forms of glucomannan was reported to be associated with seven cases of esophageal obstruction in — in Australia [ 99 ]. Users should therefore be cautious when taking glucomannan tablets. Powdered and capsule forms have not been associated with this effect [ ]. The seeds or beans of the coffee plant Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora, Coffea robusta are green until they are roasted.

Compared to roasted beans, green coffee beans have higher levels of chlorogenic acid. Green coffee extract, probably because of its chlorogenic acid content, inhibits fat accumulation in mice and humans by regulating adipogenesis.

Green coffee extract also modulates glucose metabolism [ ], perhaps by reducing glucose absorption in the gut [ ]. Green coffee beans contain caffeine see section on caffeine above [ ], although decaffeinated forms are available [ 16 ].

In mice, green coffee bean extract in combination with a high-fat diet significantly reduced body weight gain and fat mass [ , ]. Only a few clinical trials have examined the effects of green coffee bean extract on weight loss in humans, and all were of poor methodological quality.

The researchers concluded that green coffee bean extract has a moderate but significant effect on body weight mean weight loss of 2. The authors of another small clinical trial claimed to show a benefit of green coffee bean extract for weight loss [ ], but the study was strongly criticized by the FTC for having several critical flaws in its design [ , ].

Two of the three study authors subsequently retracted the journal publication. Green coffee bean extract appears to be well tolerated, but its safety has not been rigorously studied. Reported adverse effects include headaches and urinary tract infections [ ]. The caffeine naturally present in green coffee beans acts as a stimulant and can cause adverse effects, depending on the dose and whether it is combined with other stimulants see section on caffeine above.

Green tea Camellia sinensis is a popular beverage consumed worldwide that has several purported health benefits [ ]. Green tea is present in some dietary supplements, frequently in the form of green tea extract.

The active components of green tea that are associated with weight loss are caffeine see section on caffeine above and catechins, primarily epigallocatechin gallate EGCG , which is a flavonoid [ 41 , ].

A typical brewed cup of green tea has about — mg catechins [ ] and 45 mg caffeine. It has been suggested that green tea and its components might reduce body weight by increasing energy expenditure and fat oxidation, reducing lipogenesis, and decreasing fat absorption [ 41 , ].

Green tea might also decrease carbohydrate digestion and absorption [ ]. Available green tea extracts cover the range from minimally processed tea leaves to highly processed, manufactured concentrates of single constituents, such as EGCG.

The authors of a meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials with a total of 98 participants found that caffeine alone or in combination with catechins significantly increases energy expenditure in a dose-dependent fashion compared with placebo [ ]. This effect might be important for maintaining weight loss by helping counteract the decrease in metabolic rate that can occur during weight loss.

Catechins combined with caffeine also significantly increase fat oxidation, but caffeine alone does not. Other human research indicates that EGCG alone does not increase resting metabolic rate, fat oxidation, or the thermic effect of feeding the increase in metabolic rate associated with the digestion and absorption of food [ , ].

Taken together, these findings suggest that green tea catechins and caffeine might act synergistically [ 41 , , ].

Several human studies have examined the effects of green tea catechins on weight loss and weight maintenance. A Cochrane Review analyzed the results from 14 randomized controlled trials of green tea preparations in a total of 1, participants with overweight or obesity [ ]. The trials lasted from 12 to 13 weeks, and doses of green tea catechins ranged from to 1, mg; in 10 of the 14 trials, the green tea preparations contained caffeine.

Green tea supplementation reduced body weight by a mean of 0. However, when the authors analyzed the six studies that were conducted outside of Japan where study methodologies were less heterogeneous than in the Japanese studies , they found no statistically significant difference in weight loss for green tea compared to placebo.

The authors reported that green tea catechins combined with caffeine over a median of 12 weeks modestly yet significantly reduced body weight by a mean of 1. Only two studies in this meta-analysis examined the effects of green tea catechins alone. Their results suggest that green tea catechins alone do not affect body weight or other anthropometric measurements.

A meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials found that people who took EGCG combined with caffeine for 12—13 weeks lost a mean of 1. In , EFSA examined health claims related to green tea and concluded that "a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of catechins including EGCG from green tea … and contribution to the maintenance or achievement of a normal body weight" [ ].

Taken together, the findings of these studies suggest that if green tea is an effective weight-loss aid, any effect it has is small and not likely to be clinically relevant [ , ]. No adverse effects have been reported from the consumption of green tea as a beverage [ ].

For green tea extract, most reported adverse effects are mild to moderate, and they include nausea, constipation, abdominal discomfort, and increased blood pressure [ ]. Toxicology studies in rats and mice show that green tea extract does not cause cancer but does cause nonneoplastic lesions in many areas of the body, including the nose, liver, and bone marrow [ ].

Other evidence in mice shows that high doses of catechins cause liver toxicity. There is also increasing evidence in humans that green tea extract might cause liver damage, though the underlying mechanism is not well understood [ ].

An analysis of 1, postmenopausal women participating in the Minnesota Green Tea Trial found that women who consumed green tea extract containing 1, mg total catechins including mg EGCG and Consumption of some green tea extracts—primarily ethanolic extracts of green tea—has also been linked to liver damage in at least 50 case reports since [ 43 , ].

In , the U. Pharmacopeia USP systematically reviewed the safety of green tea products [ ]. The USP noted that problems are more likely when green tea extract is taken on an empty stomach and, therefore, advises taking green tea extracts with food to minimize the possible risk of liver damage.

Other researchers and medical experts advise using dietary supplements containing green tea extract only with caution [ ]. Guar gum is a soluble dietary fiber derived from seeds of the Indian cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonolobus [ 16 , ].

Guar gum is present in certain dietary supplements and is an ingredient in some food products, especially gluten-free baked goods, because it helps bind and thicken these products.

Like glucomannan, guar gum is purported to promote weight loss by acting as a bulking agent in the gut; delaying gastric emptying; increasing feelings of satiety; and, theoretically, decreasing appetite and food intake [ 16 , ].

However, guar gum does not appear to enhance weight loss. In a meta-analysis of 20 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials that statistically pooled data from 11 trials, Pittler and colleagues evaluated the effects of guar gum for body weight reduction in a total of adults [ ].

Trial participants included people with hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, or type 1 or type 2 diabetes; menopausal women; and healthy volunteers. Compared with placebo, guar gum had no significant effect on weight loss.

The authors concluded that guar gum is not effective for body weight reduction. Reported adverse effects for guar gum are primarily gastrointestinal and include abdominal pain, flatulence, diarrhea, increased number of bowel movements, nausea, and cramps [ , , ].

Case reports indicate that guar gum can cause severe esophageal and small-bowel obstruction if taken without sufficient fluid [ , ].

However, these reports were about a guar gum product that is no longer available [ ]. In their meta-analysis, Pittler and colleagues concluded that given the adverse effects associated with the use of guar gum, the risks of taking it outweigh its benefits [ ]. Hoodia gordonii is a succulent plant that grows in the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa.

The San people have traditionally used hoodia as an appetite suppressant during long hunts. This anecdotal evidence, combined with results of a few animal studies indicating that hoodia reduces food intake [ ], led to the widespread marketing of hoodia as a weight-loss supplement in the United States in the early s.

Scientists have not determined the exact mechanism whereby hoodia might suppress appetite. A glycoside commonly called P57, which may have central nervous system activity [ ], is widely believed to be the main active ingredient, although not all researchers agree [ 16 , ]. Despite its popularity as a weight-loss supplement, very little scientific research on hoodia has been conducted in humans [ ].

Compared to placebo, hoodia extract had no significant effect on energy intake or body weight. Hoodia has been reported to cause significant increases in heart rate and blood pressure [ ]. It also raises bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase levels which may indicate impaired liver function , although the clinical significance of these findings is unclear because hoodia has not been reported to affect levels of other liver enzymes.

Other side effects include headache, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. In the past, some hoodia products were found to contain little or no hoodia [ ]. The human microbiota, which outnumber human cells by up to fold, have myriad roles in human health [ , ]. Although microbes are found throughout the human body, the vast majority inhabit the colon.

The gut microbiota play an important role in nutrient and energy extraction from food. Research in mice suggests that the gut microbiota affect not only use of energy from the diet but also energy expenditure and storage within the host [ ].

Whether these effects translate to humans is unknown. However, manipulating the gut microbiota has been proposed as a method to prevent or treat obesity in humans, and probiotics might provide a way to accomplish this.