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Cycling trial was performed 24 h after the second fatigue protocol. Participants received 15 capsules not identified and were advise to intake one capsule per day, before breakfast, with a glass of water. The capsules from GTE and placebo groups were identical. Supplementation was administrated in capsules because this strategy results in larger bioavailability Henning et al.

Capsules content were GTE and celulomax E, an inactive excipient that served as a placebo. GTE dose was defined considering the results from a previous study in which the same supplementation dose reduced fatigue-induced muscle damage da Silva et al.

GTE was purchased from a local commercial supplier, manipulated by a pharmaceutics registered professional, and tested using high performance liquid chromatography HPLC to ensure the presence of epigallocatechin gallate 1. HPLC was performed with a Shimadzu Prominence Auto Sampler YL system Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan , equipped with Shimadzu YL reciprocating pumps connected to an YL degasser with an YL integrator, and YL diode array detector.

To determine compounds profile the extracts were analyzed using a reversed phase carried out under gradient conditions using Synergi Fusion-RP 80A column 4. A flow rate of 0. Phenolic compounds were identified and quantified by comparing the retention time and UV—Visible spectral data to known previously injected standards.

The chromatography peaks were confirmed by comparing the retention time with those of reference standards and by DAD spectra. All chromatography operations were performed at ambient temperature and in triplicate.

During the supplementation period participants were requested to report any consume of stimulants, other supplements, medications, and teas originated from C.

sinensis or other plant. Furthermore, they were requested to avoid consume of fruits, milk, caffeine, and alcohol on the day before each cycling tests when blood samples were collected Sugita et al. Participants received daily messages to recall them about the orientations and to avoid mistakes in capsules intake.

Blood samples 10 mL were collected from the ulnar vein before and after each cycling submaximal test. Samples were centrifuged 10 min, rpm to separate the plasma that was stored at °C to further determination of total activity of creatine kinase CK Noakes, using enzymatic commercial kits Labtest.

The blood samples for biochemical analyzes of oxidative damage were collected in tubes with heparin. The analysis of substances reactive to the thiobarbituric acid TBARS served to determine the lipid peroxidation Ohkawa et al. To ensure that participants had no damage in soft tissues that could increase CK for instance, a muscle strain, tendon, or ligament injury, etc.

we determined the serum levels of the C reactive protein Pritchett, using immunological kits Labtest. The blood analyses are named in the result section as: A pre cycling without fatigue, B post-cycling without fatigue, C pre cycling with fatigue, and D post-cycling with fatigue.

Data are expressed as mean and standard deviation. Normality of data distribution was confirmed using the Shapiro—Wilk test. EMG signals within cycling trials were compared between the moments by one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc , and the comparison between the groups and fatigue conditions by two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc.

Biochemical and heart rate data were compared within cycling trials by one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc. For non-parametric data Friedman and Wilcoxon testes were used.

Comparisons between the groups were performed using independent t -test. Significance level was set at 0. Results of C-reactive protein suggest that participants from GTE and placebo groups did not suffer macro injuries related to the experiments data not shown.

Muscle damage was lower in the GTE supplemented participants. FIGURE 2. Plasma A creatine kinase CK and B plasma lipid peroxidation measured by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances TBARS. Placebo group showed higher oxidative stress in the fatigue condition, suggesting a protective role of GTE supplementation.

Cardiovascular responses estimated by heart rate showed that GTE supplemented group experienced lower cardiac workload than placebo group. Heart rate responses to the cycling trials Figure 3 were analyzed by the angular coefficient of the regression curve considering second-to-second data recorded during the exercise.

FIGURE 3. Heart rate HR curve slope over time of exercise in the different groups and conditions. Neuromuscular activation from the left vastus lateralis LVL of the participants of placebo group showed significant impairment in the fatigue condition.

FIGURE 4. Results of neuromuscular electrical activity obtained from GTE and placebo groups during the cycling trials with and without fatigue condition.

Data are shown as mean bars and standard deviation vertical lines for A root mean square RMS and B median frequency MDF normalized to the moment 1 for right RVL and left vastus lateralis LVL. Here we set out to determine whether GTE supplementation could benefit performance under a condition of cumulative fatigue.

GTE has been shown as a potential antioxidant, with positive effects on different tissues, and could be a good option for competitive sports. Despite of its popularity among athletes, few evidences of the benefits are available concerning amateur competitive sport.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating that GTE supplementation before cumulative fatigue minimizes muscle damage and oxidative stress in trained athletes, therefore playing a significant role in exercise recovery, and with important effects on neuromuscular and cardiovascular performance during exercise.

Previous studies on GTE supplementation in athletes were limited to the determination of performance improvement resultant of higher lipid oxidation due to GTE activity Ichinose et al. Rather than an effect on energy supply, here we focused on performance during endurance trials of cycling under cumulative fatigue, which is close to the experienced by athletes in competitions lasting more than 1 day, and found GTE results supporting benefits of this supplementation on both muscle damage and recovery markers, as well neuromuscular function Fuglevand et al.

These are important implication for training and competition. Placebo group showed higher muscle damage after fatigue.

Increase in CK activity is commonly associated with damage resultant of mechanical stress and structural acute changes in the muscle, which happens in coexistence with increase in oxidative stress Morillas-Ruiz et al. Such result supports the role of GTE in minimizing muscle damage resultant of exercise.

Oxidative stress is the most accepted explanation to the presence of muscle damage, and the results from GTE group support the lower oxidative stress as an explanation to the lower CK activity observed in the GTE supplemented group Panza et al.

CK activity determined from the circulating blood can be variable, and it is important to ensure the absence of other lesions that could influence CK activity. We found no changes in C-reactive protein and therefore attribute the changes in CK activity to the stress imposed by the exercise protocols Pritchett, Green tea extract supplementation resulted in stable lipid peroxidation, which was used as a marker of oxidative stress.

It is known that oxidative stress is not cumulative along different days of exercise Shing et al. This result is in agreement with a previous study addressing sprints tasks that resulted in an oxidative stress condition in placebo but not in the GTE supplemented group Jowko et al.

The exercise configuration used here leaded to an imbalance in the oxidative status resulting in oxidative stress Vollaard et al. Oxidative stress has important implications on the contraction mechanisms and force output capacity Prochniewicz et al. GTE catechins work as scavengers of reactive species of oxygen better than observed in response to other supplementation strategies commonly used in sports, such as vitamin C and E Zaveri, It supports our idea that the antioxidant properties of GTE are the main explanation to our results in the fatigue condition.

The metabolic damage in the muscle tissue impaired muscle activation in a way visible considering simple markers of surface electromyography. Placebo group showed lower magnitudes of neuromuscular activity and higher indicators of muscle fatigue.

The decrease in the magnitude of neuromuscular activation and its correlation with increase in markers of muscle fatigue is expected in muscles exposed to repeated bouts of exercise under cumulative fatigue Mendez-Villanueva et al.

Our cycling trials involved constant workload relative to the individual PPO. While this rationale seems evident to the placebo group, GTE group showed better indicators of neuromuscular performance and cardiovascular demand.

Our study has limitations. We were unable to fully control the diet of the participants and it may have influenced the higher variability observed in the results, which is also a common issue in previous studies. To minimize this effect we delivered detailed recommendations to the participants, like avoiding intermittent fasting that affect oxidative stress Dannecker et al.

We controlled the highest number of factors possible we could to minimize other variables of influence on our results. Neuromuscular results showed consistent impairments in the left leg, and it may have some relation with variables of motor control like leg preference, which deserves attention in future researches.

Measurements of force would help to determine the extend of damage due to the exercise McHugh et al. We were unable to evaluate knee extensors force. The pharmacokinetics of the catechins in the blood may have influenced our results.

In rats dosed with green tea catechins, concentrations in the blood exhibited peak up to 3 h after intake Janle et al. In humans, peak plasma concentrations are reached between 1.

We tried to minimize these effects by controlling the period of the day in which tests were performed according to the time when the supplementation was intake. Finally, although the dosage is different among the studies, a higher dosage is not related to better results on muscle soreness, for example Arent et al.

Green tea extract supplementation before an event of cumulative fatigue minimizes muscle damage and oxidative stress in trained athletes. It also shows positive effects on neuromuscular parameters related to muscle activation and muscle fatigue.

Therefore, GTE supplementation can be considered a valid strategy in the context of competitive endurance sport aiming at exercise recovery and performance of athletes. This study was approved by the ethics committee from Universidade Federal do Pampa and all participants signed a consent term prior to start the participation in this research.

ÁM, WdS, MS, and FC designed the study, interpretated the data, and prepared the manuscript. ÁM, WdS, and MS collected and processed the data. All authors approved the final manuscript.

ÁM and MS were supported by CAPES-Brazil student fellowships. A research fellow of CNPq-Brazil supports FC. The authors declare that they have no financial or other interest concerning the content of this paper. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The authors would like to thank Caetano Lazzari, Daiana Ávila, and Pamela Mello-Carpes for their technical support during data analysis. ÁM received a student fellowship from CAPES — Brazil.

CNPq — Brazil supported MS and FC. Abbiss, C. Models to explain fatigue during prolonged endurance cycling. Sports Med. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Ahtiainen, J. Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery to forced vs.

Maximum repetitions multiple resistance exercises. Arent, S. The effects of theaflavin-enriched black tea extract on muscle soreness, oxidative stress, inflammation, and endocrine responses to acute anaerobic interval training: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Sports Nutr. Bini, R. Physiological and electromyographic responses during km cycling time trial: relationship to muscle coordination and performance.

Sport 11, — Chow, H. Pharmacokinetics and safety of green tea polyphenols after multiple-dose administration of epigallocatechin gallate and polyphenon E in healthy individuals.

Cancer Res. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Effects of dosing condition on the oral bioavailability of green tea catechins after single-dose administration of polyphenon E in healthy individuals. Cifrek, M. Surface EMG based muscle fatigue evaluation in biomechanics.

da Silva, W. Effect of green tea extract supplementation on exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness and muscular damage. Dannecker, E. The effect of fasting on indicators of muscle damage. Diefenthaeler, F.

Muscle activity and pedal force profile of triathletes during cycling to exhaustion. Sports Biomech. Enoka, R. Muscle fatigue: what, why and how it influences muscle function. CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Ericson, M. Power output and work in different muscle groups during ergometer cycling.

Fuglevand, A. Impairment of neuromuscular propagation during human fatiguing contractions at submaximal forces. Henning, S. Bioavailability and antioxidant activity of tea flavanols after consumption of green tea, black tea, or a green tea extract supplement.

Hermens, H. Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures. Herrlinger, K. Supplementation with a polyphenolic blend improves post-exercise strength recovery and muscle soreness.

Food Nutr. Hodges, P. A comparison of computer-based methods for the determination of onset of muscle contraction using electromyography.

Hultman, E. Biochemistry of muscle fatigue. Acta 45, S97—S Google Scholar. Ichinose, T. Effect of endurance training supplemented with green tea extract on substrate metabolism during exercise in humans. Sports 21, — Janle, E. Pharmacokinetics of green tea catechins in extract and sustained-release preparations.

Jowko, E. Lamprecht Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. The effect of green tea extract supplementation on exercise-induced oxidative stress parameters in male sprinters.

Effect of a single dose of green tea polyphenols on the blood markers of exercise-induced oxidative stress in soccer players. Sport Nutr. Kuo, Y. Green tea extract supplementation does not hamper endurance-training adaptation but improves antioxidant capacity in sedentary men.

Kyparos, A. Short duration exhaustive aerobic exercise induces oxidative stress: a novel play-oriented volitional fatigue test. Fitness 47, — Lucia, A.

Its origin is multifactorial Enoka and Duchateau, , but it has been accepted that fatigue involves ATP depletion, muscle damage, and increased production of reactive oxygen species ROS resulting in a condition of oxidative stress Hultman et al.

In general, fatigue negatively affects force production, and in the case of cycling, pedal forces, power output, and cadence are impaired Diefenthaeler et al. Repeated bouts of strenuous exercise lead to a condition of cumulative fatigue in which the capacity of force production reduces, and for quadriceps muscles the recovery of force production after fatigue may need up to 3 days Stewart et al.

In addition to the acute effects of fatigue on performance, consecutive sessions of exercise under a fatigue state may result in poor performance during training sessions and competitions Stewart et al. Conditions of cumulative fatigue may also increase the risk of injuries Shing et al.

However, there are many situations in which athletes have no choice other than sustain the performance under fatigue. This is the case of ultra-marathons, trail running, cycling distance challenges, and professional or amateur cycling tours Lucia et al. Therefore, strategies to minimize the fatigue effects on performance of repeated bouts of exercise are of interest for both coaches and athletes.

A plausible strategy to achieve this purpose is to promote a faster exercise recovery. In this regard, supplementation with natural products has attracted interest of athletes from different competitive levels. Considering that fatigue and its effects on performance during repeated sessions of exercise have important participation of oxidative stress and muscle damage Kyparos et al.

GTE is rich in polyphenols including epigallocatechin gallate, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, and epicatechin gallate, which result in a powerful antioxidant activity Jowko, ; Schimidt et al.

Previous studies showed that GTE supplementation might reduce oxidative stress Sugita et al. Furthermore, GTE can reduce muscle soreness resultant of eccentric exercise Herrlinger et al. Similar effects were not found when a single-dose of GTE was intake before intense muscle-endurance tests Jowko et al.

The effects described for GTE supplementation on muscle damage and oxidative stress suggest that GTE could be a valid strategy to preserve performance during repeated bouts of exercise leading to a cumulative fatigue.

To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to address this question. The potential effect of GTE supplementation on performance under a fatigue state has important practical applications.

For instance, amateur competitions can involve consecutive days racing without a proper time for recovery Shing et al. Therefore, the main goal of our study was to determine whether GTE supplementation minimizes muscle damage and oxidative stress contributing to the preservation of neuromuscular function in trained athletes exposed to consecutive sessions of exercise leading to cumulative fatigue.

We performed a randomized triple blinded placebo control experiment. Upon start of the study, 22 healthy trained men were recruited, but 16 completed all the phases of the study and had the data included in the analysis.

The competitive level included participation in state and national competitions. During the study participants were requested to avoid ingestion of any medicine or stimulants, and to keep their regular routine of training and diet.

They should inform the need to start any medical treatment during the entire experimental phase. Six participants were excluded due to these criteria and therefore we had eight participants in each group.

Intervention group was supplemented with green tea extract and the control received capsules with placebo. Table 1 describes the study participants. Experiments started with the participants completing an incremental maximal cycling test to determine the individual peak power output PPO.

In the following days they performed submaximal cycling trials combined or not with sessions of knee extension exercise to fatigue.

The whole experiment lasted 23 days for each participant. In the different visits to the laboratory, neuromuscular parameters were determined based on electrical neuromuscular activity; muscle damage and oxidative stress were determined from blood samples; and a cardiac monitor recorded heart rate.

Data were compared between the GTE and placebo groups and between the conditions with or without the fatigue. All participants were evaluated with or without fatigue.

In the case of non-fatigue condition, we ensured at least 5 days without supplementation and without performance of vigorous exercise Chow et al. We call fatigue the condition of being tested after completing knee extension trials until exhaustion in two consecutive days before a submaximal cycling trial.

Figure 1 illustrates our experimental design. All participants signed a consent term before starting participation in the study; procedures were conducted in agreement with declaration of Helsinki, and this research was approved by the institutional committee of ethics in research IRB no.

FIGURE 1. Experimental design. All participants completed the same protocols. Experiment started with the incremental maximal test to determine peak power output PPO.

In the last 3 days of supplementation participants repeated the submaximal cycling trial after two sessions of knee extensors exercise to fatigue. To avoid learning effects from the first test on the results after fatigue condition, half of the participants from each group performed the non-fatigue submaximal cycling test after the fatigue period, and the other half before.

rpm: cadence, in revolution per minute, PPO: PPO, EMG: record of electrical muscle activation by surface electromyography, RVL: vastus lateralis from right leg, left vastus lateralis LVL : vastus lateralis from left leg.

Cycling trials were performed always between 3 and 6 pm on a cycle ergometer Lode Excalibur Sport, Lode, Netherlands properly adjusted to the individual body posture of the participants. The last workload completed was therefore named the PPO Priego Quesada et al.

Neuromuscular electrical activity was determined during the submaximal cycling tests using surface electromyography EMG. EMG signals were recorded bilaterally from the vastus lateralis, which was selected due to its main role for power production in cycling Bini et al. Data were sampled at 1.

EMG signals were filtered using a band-pass digital Butterworth filter with cut off frequency of 0. Onset and offset of neuromuscular electrical activity for each contraction burst were determined using the criteria of variation of two standard deviation for increase and decrease considering the average activation recorded during rest Hodges and Bui, From each contraction burst during the cycling trials, the root mean square RMS value was determined as an indicator of magnitude of activation Moritani et al.

At the end, for each participant we had five moments of 5-min EMG record. EMG data from moment 1 5—10 min of exercise was considered the reference to the normalization of RMS values obtained during the exercise.

We aimed to elicit a condition of cumulative fatigue by combining 2 days of strenuous knee extension exercises until exhaustion and the performance of a submaximal cycling trial on the subsequent day.

The trials for knee extension were also performed between 3 and 6 pm using a seated knee extensor machine with the participant performing concentric-eccentric knee extensions until exhaustion. A metronome set at 20 beats per minute controlled the movement velocity.

In the first set of repetitions the maximal number of voluntary repetitions was determined. Cycling trial was performed 24 h after the second fatigue protocol. Participants received 15 capsules not identified and were advise to intake one capsule per day, before breakfast, with a glass of water.

The capsules from GTE and placebo groups were identical. Supplementation was administrated in capsules because this strategy results in larger bioavailability Henning et al. Capsules content were GTE and celulomax E, an inactive excipient that served as a placebo.

GTE dose was defined considering the results from a previous study in which the same supplementation dose reduced fatigue-induced muscle damage da Silva et al. GTE was purchased from a local commercial supplier, manipulated by a pharmaceutics registered professional, and tested using high performance liquid chromatography HPLC to ensure the presence of epigallocatechin gallate 1.

HPLC was performed with a Shimadzu Prominence Auto Sampler YL system Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan , equipped with Shimadzu YL reciprocating pumps connected to an YL degasser with an YL integrator, and YL diode array detector.

To determine compounds profile the extracts were analyzed using a reversed phase carried out under gradient conditions using Synergi Fusion-RP 80A column 4. A flow rate of 0. Phenolic compounds were identified and quantified by comparing the retention time and UV—Visible spectral data to known previously injected standards.

The chromatography peaks were confirmed by comparing the retention time with those of reference standards and by DAD spectra. All chromatography operations were performed at ambient temperature and in triplicate.

During the supplementation period participants were requested to report any consume of stimulants, other supplements, medications, and teas originated from C.

sinensis or other plant. Furthermore, they were requested to avoid consume of fruits, milk, caffeine, and alcohol on the day before each cycling tests when blood samples were collected Sugita et al. Participants received daily messages to recall them about the orientations and to avoid mistakes in capsules intake.

Blood samples 10 mL were collected from the ulnar vein before and after each cycling submaximal test. Samples were centrifuged 10 min, rpm to separate the plasma that was stored at °C to further determination of total activity of creatine kinase CK Noakes, using enzymatic commercial kits Labtest.

The blood samples for biochemical analyzes of oxidative damage were collected in tubes with heparin. The analysis of substances reactive to the thiobarbituric acid TBARS served to determine the lipid peroxidation Ohkawa et al.

To ensure that participants had no damage in soft tissues that could increase CK for instance, a muscle strain, tendon, or ligament injury, etc. we determined the serum levels of the C reactive protein Pritchett, using immunological kits Labtest. The blood analyses are named in the result section as: A pre cycling without fatigue, B post-cycling without fatigue, C pre cycling with fatigue, and D post-cycling with fatigue.

Data are expressed as mean and standard deviation. Normality of data distribution was confirmed using the Shapiro—Wilk test. EMG signals within cycling trials were compared between the moments by one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc , and the comparison between the groups and fatigue conditions by two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc.

Biochemical and heart rate data were compared within cycling trials by one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc. For non-parametric data Friedman and Wilcoxon testes were used. Comparisons between the groups were performed using independent t -test.

Significance level was set at 0. Results of C-reactive protein suggest that participants from GTE and placebo groups did not suffer macro injuries related to the experiments data not shown.

Muscle damage was lower in the GTE supplemented participants. FIGURE 2. Plasma A creatine kinase CK and B plasma lipid peroxidation measured by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances TBARS.

Placebo group showed higher oxidative stress in the fatigue condition, suggesting a protective role of GTE supplementation. Cardiovascular responses estimated by heart rate showed that GTE supplemented group experienced lower cardiac workload than placebo group.

Heart rate responses to the cycling trials Figure 3 were analyzed by the angular coefficient of the regression curve considering second-to-second data recorded during the exercise. FIGURE 3. Heart rate HR curve slope over time of exercise in the different groups and conditions.

Neuromuscular activation from the left vastus lateralis LVL of the participants of placebo group showed significant impairment in the fatigue condition. FIGURE 4. Results of neuromuscular electrical activity obtained from GTE and placebo groups during the cycling trials with and without fatigue condition.

Data are shown as mean bars and standard deviation vertical lines for A root mean square RMS and B median frequency MDF normalized to the moment 1 for right RVL and left vastus lateralis LVL.

Here we set out to determine whether GTE supplementation could benefit performance under a condition of cumulative fatigue. GTE has been shown as a potential antioxidant, with positive effects on different tissues, and could be a good option for competitive sports. Despite of its popularity among athletes, few evidences of the benefits are available concerning amateur competitive sport.

Age-related muscle loss and decreased strength, referred to as sarcopenia, have been recognized as major risk factors and may necessitate nursing care in aged individuals.

As a counter-intervention, resistance exercise training has been recommended to improve athletic performance and prevent sarcopenia in older adults [ 1 ]. Resistance training increases the strength of skeletal muscles and causes hypertrophy as typical adaptation effects.

In the early stage of training, the participation of muscle fiber in muscle contraction is increased to support lifting weights. Subsequently, continuous resistance training causes muscle fiber hypertrophy with elevated protein anabolism, resulting in further improved muscle strength [ 2 ].

Muscle mass also contributes to whole-body energy expenditure and substrate utilization, which is associated with the development of obesity and metabolic diseases. Adequate dietary nutrition is necessary for muscle adaptation to training.

Sufficient protein intake is required to supply amino acids as substrates for protein synthesis. The timing of protein intake and complementary consumption of carbohydrates effectively activate protein anabolism [ 3 ].

Moreover, adequate nutrition management prevents fatigue and promotes supercompensation, which can have beneficial effects on adaptation. In addition, some micro-compounds contained in natural foods have been shown to regulate protein metabolism and suppress physical fatigue under in vivo and in vitro experimental conditions.

Amino acids act as substrates of constitutive proteins and signaling factors of accelerated protein synthesis [ 4 ]. Some factors with antioxidative potential modulate oxidative stress, which can inhibit muscle contraction and cause mitochondrial dysfunction [ 5 , 6 ].

However, intervention studies on the role of dietary foods in muscle adaptation to resistance training in humans have been limited. Tea beverages, which are consumed daily, are sources of bioactive micro-compounds.

Green tea contains high concentrations of catechins and reportedly has various health benefits. Daily intake of green tea is beneficial for neural, cardiovascular, and metabolic functions in humans [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. The combination of green tea intake and exercise training accelerates aerobic metabolism and lipid utilization in skeletal muscle [ 10 ].

Matcha—a powdered green tea—contains specific functional compounds. It is prepared from tea leaves harvested after growing plants under shaded conditions for several weeks. After processing, the final product is consumed as a thick suspension; its catechin content per cup is twice that of normal sencha green tea infusions [ 11 ].

Matcha green tea powder contains carotenoids, including lutein, theanine, vitamin K, and dietary fibers, which are found in relatively low levels in sencha green tea [ 12 ]. Catechins and carotenoids have antioxidant and reactive oxygen species ROS -scavenging effects.

During exercise, the antioxidant activity can suppress excess oxidative stress in muscle cells, endothelial cells, and neutrophils. Dietary fibers improve the intestinal environment by modulating the microbiota profile and epithelial barrier function and regulate nutrient absorption [ 13 , 14 ].

Catechins may also efficiently modulate the intestinal environment through antibiotic and antioxidant effects [ 15 ]. A favorable intestinal environment can improve metabolic function and ameliorate fatigue and psychological stress [ 16 , 17 ]. The amino acid theanine reduces stress and elevates nutrient metabolism by affecting the central and peripheral nervous systems [ 18 , 19 ].

Therefore, the micro-compounds contained in matcha may promote recovery and protein synthesis, resulting in muscle adaptation.

In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of the daily consumption of matcha on resistance training-induced adaptation in humans. Thirty-six young and healthy men participated in this study, which was approved by the ethics committee of Kyoto Prefectural University No.

All participants provided written informed consent. None of the participants suffered from current at the time of the study or prior chronic diseases or had a history of smoking.

Furthermore, none of the participants were using any medication or supplements at the time of the study or habituated to regular exercise.

The participants were randomly divided into placebo and matcha groups, and body composition parameters—body weight, body fat, muscle mass, and body mass index BMI —were measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis InBody; InBody Co.

This study involved two randomized placebo-controlled trials Fig. In trial 1, 17 participants age: Body composition, maximum muscle strength, whole-body energy expenditure, and blood parameters were measured during the week before commencing the training period and the final week of training Figure S 1.

The level of subjective fatigue was measured on the first exercise day and on an exercise day during the final week of training.

Fecal samples were collected before and after 4 and 8 weeks of intervention. In trial 2, 19 participants age: Body composition, saliva parameters, and visual function were measured during the week before and after the intervention period.

During the trial period, the participants of both groups consumed beverages twice a day. The matcha group consumed a beverage containing 1. The training program consisted of eight resistance exercises: chest press, fly, back extension, seated rowing, leg press, leg extension, leg curl, and sit-up, performed using a combined exercise machine Senoh Co.

The participants performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions at a repetition maximum RM. Training frequency was twice a week at 2—3-day intervals, and weight load was gradually increased according to the 10 RM of individuals. Maximum leg extension strength was measured in both legs using a knee-extension strength meter ST R; Meiko Co.

The grip strength of both hands was assessed using GRIP D T. The participants were instructed to refrain from intense physical activities, eating, and drinking, except for water, from until breakfast in the morning. In addition, they were requested to eat g of steamed rice energy, kcal; protein, 5.

After sitting for 30 min, the oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production levels of the participants were measured in the supine position using a breath-by-breath respiromonitor system AE s; Minato Medical Sciences Co.

Respiratory quotient and substrate use carbohydrate and fat oxidation were calculated from the levels of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, as described previously [ 20 ].

The participants were instructed to refrain from intense physical activity and fast from h on the day before blood sample collection. On the day of blood sampling, each participant ate g of steamed rice and rested for 1 h. Blood samples were collected before and after resistance exercise 8 exercises, 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 10 RM, as mentioned above during the pre- and post-intervention periods.

The obtained serum samples were used to measure carbonylated protein concentration and creatine kinase activity using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ELISA kits BioCell Co.

The degree of subjective fatigue before exercise at rest was measured using a visual analog scale. Brushes and sheets for stool collection were distributed to the participants, and stool samples were collected before, at week 4, and at week 8 of the intervention.

Stool samples were refrigerated, and bacterial DNA was extracted within 3 weeks after collection. Metagenomic analyses of 16S rRNA of the extracted DNA samples were performed using a next-generation sequencer MiSeq; Illumina K.

Bacterial DNA extraction from feces, library preparation, and deep sequencing were performed as previously described [ 21 ]. Sequence data were analyzed as previously described [ 22 ] using QIIME2 version To avoid the effect of the circadian rhythm, saliva was collected at the same time of day before and after the intervention, using a saliva collection kit Salivette, Sarstedt, Germany consisting of a centrifuge tube and sterile cotton.

Salivary cortisol and secretory IgA sIgA concentrations were measured using ELISA kits Salimetrics, Trier, Germany , and their amounts were calculated from saliva concentration and volume. Two methods were used to evaluate the participants' ability to visually discern a moving object.

Forward and backward kinetic visual acuity KVA was measured using a dynamic vision meter AS-4; Kowa Co. Lateral dynamic visual acuity DVA and ocular motor skills OMS were evaluated on a computer monitor using sports vision software ArrowZeye; Diamond Eye Co.

The participants were subjected to DVA and OMS tests at a distance of 60 cm from a cm monitor, and the percentage of correct answers was evaluated.

In the DVA test, the participants identified numbers moving from left to right across the screen. In the OMS test, nine locations on the screen randomly flashed three circles and six squares.

The participants were required to recognize the three circles and indicate their locations. A dietary assessment was conducted to calculate nutrient intake before trial commencement.

All participants were permitted to eat freely, and their food intake was recorded for 3 days using a food diary and camera. Thereafter, a dietitian reviewed the recorded data to follow up and estimate participants' nutrient intake using Excel add-in software Excel Eiyou-kun Ver.

A two-way analysis of variance ANOVA was conducted to assess the significance of the interaction between drink intervention group and time.

An intra-group comparison was conducted if the main effect of time without interaction was observed. Differences in changes between the placebo and matcha groups were evaluated using the Mann—Whitney U test or an independent samples t -test, depending on whether they were normally distributed. Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient was used to estimate bivariate correlations.

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version In trial 1, no significant interactions and changes in response to training in body weight, BMI, skeletal muscle mass, or body fat percentage were observed Table 1.

No between-group differences concerning habitual intake of total energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate were observed Table S 1. The concentration of serum carbonylated proteins and creatine kinase activity neither showed significant interactions nor training-induced changes Fig.

Blood and subjective fatigue parameters in trial 1. Serum carbonylated protein concentration a and creatine kinase activity b before and after the intervention. Subjective fatigue levels c during the intervention at weeks 1 and 8. Pre: pre-training, Post: post-training.

No differences in resting oxygen consumption, respiratory quotient, carbohydrate oxidation, and fat oxidation were observed between the groups before and after the intervention Table S 2. The Chao1 and Shannon indices, which indicate the alpha diversity of gut bacteria, were not altered by the intervention within or between groups.

However, the abundance of five genera changed significantly after the intervention. Abundance of gut microbiota genera in trial 1.

Proportion of the genera Butyricimonas a , Ruminococcus b , and Oscillospira c before and at weeks 4 and 8 during the intervention. Correlation analyses between the change in maximum strength for the leg press and the change in genera percentage at week 4 compared with pre-intervention levels are shown in the right panel.

Pre: pre-training. Generally, the adaptation of skeletal muscles to resistance training results in an initial increase in muscle strength, followed by muscle hypertrophy with an extended training period.

Therefore, we conducted trial 2 with an intervention period of 12 weeks. Stress-related parameters in saliva and visual ability were also examined because the outcomes of trial 1 and previous studies suggested that matcha may suppress the stress response [ 24 , 25 ].

No significant differences in habitual dietary energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake were observed between the groups Table S 5. Muscular, stress, and visual parameters in trial 2.

Muscle weight a , salivary cortisol b , salivary sIgA c , and visual function d before and after the intervention. Pre: pre-training, Post: post-training, KVA: kinetic visual acuity, DVA: dynamic visual acuity, OMS: ocular motor skills.

No significant interaction and changes between groups were observed in the rate of salivary sIgA secretion Fig. Regarding visual function, there were no significant interactions in KVA, DVA, and OMS Fig.

In this study, we investigated the effects of matcha green tea consumption on adaptation to resistance training in young men. After the 8-week intervention trial 1 , a greater change in leg strength was found in the matcha group.

Furthermore, a higher muscle weight in response to training for 12 weeks was found in the matcha group trial 2. These results suggest that dietary matcha green tea may accelerate muscle adaptation to resistance training.

During adaptation to resistance exercise training, more muscle fibers are mobilized in the early stage. Muscle fibers become thicker with continued training; therefore, an extended training period results in significant muscle mass gain, further increasing muscle strength [ 2 ].

Lower fatigue and stress responses might promote recovery, leading to rapid adaptation and, ultimately, increased muscle strength and mass.

The change in salivary cortisol secretion was lower in the matcha group than that in the placebo group. This salivary indicator indirectly reflects the activation of the sympathetic nervous and hypothalamic-adrenal systems associated with stress [ 26 ].

Daily administration of matcha reduces anxiety-like behaviors in response to psychological and physiological stresses in mice [ 25 ]. Theanine, a typical ingredient of matcha, may prevent stress. Theanine in circulation crosses the blood—brain-barrier and modulates neural transmission in the brain by reducing the activation of post-synaptic glutamate receptors through the inhibitory function of glutamine in neurons [ 19 ].

Theanine consumption decreases stress and fatigue responses, including salivary cortisol and subjective stress levels in humans [ 19 ]. Although the amount of theanine contained in two cups of matcha green tea is less than the effective amount, the combined intake of theanine and other ingredients might be beneficial.

Oxidative stress may cause fatigue owing to excessive exercise [ 27 ]. ROS produced during exercise cause the oxidation of lipids and proteins in cells, resulting in oxidative damage. Oxidative stress is easily elevated in individuals without exercising habits because of their low antioxidant capacity [ 28 ].

The sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins, such as ryanodine receptor and calcium-dependent ATPase, are easily oxidized and inactivated by ROS [ 29 ].

This leads to continuously higher cytosolic calcium levels, which prevents continuous muscle contraction and leading muscle fatigue. Additionally, ROS activate inflammatory mediators that cause delayed-onset muscle damage [ 30 ]. Two cups of matcha green tea powder 3.

A major catechin, EGCG, can exert antioxidant and anti-fatigue effects [ 31 ]. In addition, matcha contains several other antioxidants, such as lutein, that scavenge ROS and suppress inflammatory responses. One cup of matcha green tea contains an equivalent amount of lutein consumed daily by Japanese individuals [ 32 ].

Although the concentration of serum carbonylated proteins, a product of oxidatively modified proteins, did not vary between groups in the present study, the irrelevance of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle fatigue could not be ascertained.

In addition, since variations in exercise-induced ROS and target organelles are expected, the measurement of various parameters is required to examine the modulative effect of redox status in skeletal muscle.

Visual function is also associated with physical fatigue and has been shown to be lower in fatigued individuals than in their non-fatigued counterparts [ 33 , 34 ]. A recent study showed that visual motion processing for optokinetic responses was enhanced in mice administered green tea or a green tea catechin, EGCG [ 35 ].

In addition, lutein, a specific compound in matcha green tea, is transported from circulation into the neural retina and accumulates in the macula lutea of the human eye. Thus, it is involved in an antioxidative capacity and protects visual function [ 36 ].

Although matcha is potentially beneficial to visual function, in the present study, it did not show significantly affect the related parameters in participants who consumed matcha under training conditions.

Therefore, further studies are required to examine its effect on visual function. Account Purchase Favorite News Subs Address Sign Out.

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