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Shirreffs SM, Maughan RJ. Restoration of fluid balance after exercise-induced dehydration: effects of alcohol consumption. Accessed 27 Apr Download references. Gatorade Sports Science Institute, West Main St. Lisa E. Heaton, Jon K. Davis, Ryan P. Nuccio, Kimberly W.

Stein, James M. Department of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Science, Messiah College, Mechanicsburg, PA, , USA. Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK.

Functional Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, , USA. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Lisa E. The preparation of this review was funded by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, a division of PepsiCo, Inc.

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Table 1 Micronutrients and supplements dosage, sources, and benefits Full size table. References Beelen M, Burke LM, Gibala MJ, et al.

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Sports foods drinks, gels, etc. The International Association of Athletics Federations recognizes various distance events, with current World Championship and Olympic Games hosting the 10,m track event and road marathon In addition, there are separate International Association of Athletics Federations Road Race Label events spread throughout the year in half marathons, marathons, and other distance races, a half-marathon World Championship, cross-country World Championships 10 km , and various Race Walking Cups and Challenges.

Many events are held as national or continental titles and include competitions for junior athletes e. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of key distance running and race walking events, noting the duration and intensity of races for top competitors and elements that contribute to the physiological and nutrition challenges of these events.

Meanwhile, opportunities to address these challenges via within-event nutrition strategies are summarized in Table 2. As in middle-distance events, there are tactical, technical, and physiological components to successful outcomes.

This paper focuses on knowledge that has emerged over the past decade on nutrition strategies to support the training and competition goals of distance runners and race walkers, translating race nutrition principles into practical recommendations. Note : All strategies should involve a personalized and well-practiced plan that is suited to the specific needs of the events.

General guidelines can be found in more detail in Thomas et al. These are heavily dependent on aerobic resynthesis of adenosine triphosphate Coyle, and require adequate delivery of O 2 from the atmosphere to the mitochondria to oxidize carbohydrate CHO and lipid fuels.

Exercise above LT incurs a nonlinear increase in metabolic, respiratory, and perceptual stress and a more rapid fatigue development due to the effects of metabolic acidosis on contractile function or an accelerated depletion of muscle glycogen Sahlin, A rightward shift in the blood [lactate]—speed relationship with training is a clear marker of enhanced endurance capacity Hurley et al.

CS, representing the highest speed at which V ˙ O 2 max and blood [lactate] can be stabilized over time, may be more important. Table 1 indicates that substrate availability for the muscle glycogen and glucose and brain glucose is a key issue for many distance events, along with the offset of sweat loss to preserve plasma volume and cardiac output.

Better exercise economy is advantageous to endurance performance because a lower fraction of V ˙ O 2 max is utilized for any particular speed. Running economy is associated with anthropometric including segmental mass distribution , physiological, metabolic, biomechanical, and technical factors Saunders et al.

Endurance training may improve exercise economy via improved muscle oxidative capacity and associated changes in motor unit recruitment patterns, reductions in exercise ventilation and heart rate for the same exercise intensity, and improved technique Saunders et al.

A partial offset may occur due to increased fat utilization because of its greater O 2 requirement for adenosine triphosphate synthesis compared with CHO metabolism. Furthermore, when intake during the event is beneficial, it may be possible to prepare the gut to optimize and tolerate this by practicing strategies with adjusted intakes of CHO and fluid within the training sessions Jeukendrup, b.

Whether more deliberate planning can improve the outcome is of interest. In this regard, although subelite endurance athletes performed better after undertaking 3 weeks of training with strategic manipulations of CHO availability Marquet et al.

Meanwhile, both dietary approaches were associated with better race outcomes than chronic 3. Further investigation of periodization of fuel support strategies in elite athletes is warranted, although it is clear that some areas are controversial or confusing. This is at least partly attributable to different definitions or inaccurate descriptions of the implementation or goals of these strategies.

A recent commentary has promoted the case for a common terminology and understanding of this theme Burke et al.

Periodization of body composition provides another example of strategic integration of different nutrition strategies within the training schedules. Instead, an assessment of anthropometric, hematological, and performance metrics over a 9-year career demonstrated a periodized approach.

Body composition optimization for competition May—August included an individualized time frame and energy deficit with various feedback metrics BM, performance, and hunger to guide the process.

This approach supported targeted peak performances and minimized risk of injury while maximizing training adaptation and long-term athlete health through management of energy availability. Although this concept has, arguably, been understood for many years, the concept and calculated practice is a contemporary update Jeukendrup, a.

Importantly, it helps the athlete to integrate the inevitability or benefits of brief periods of controlled low energy availability within the endurance training framework. Problems associated with chronic or severe low energy availability, known as relative energy deficiency in sports, are well known Mountjoy et al.

Race preparation should include strategies to store muscle glycogen in the amounts commensurate with the fuel needs of the event. In the marathon and km race walk where glycogen can become limiting for race performance, the protocols that supercompensate glycogen are beneficial.

This is often undertaken in conjunction with a low residue fiber diet Table 3 , which may not only reduce the risk of gut issues during the race but also achieve a small reduction in BM to partially offset the mass of the additional muscle glycogen and stored water. Further contributions to fuel availability are provided by a pre-event CHO-focused meal and a small CHO-rich snack e.

This is particularly important for events undertaken in the morning where CHO intake can restore liver glycogen following an overnight fast as well as provide an ongoing supply of CHO from the gut Burke et al.

Athletes should also consider fluid needs to achieve optimal hydration status for the event and specific race conditions see Casa et al. Some distance events offer an opportunity for athletes to consume fluid and fuel during the race to address the physiological limitations of these factors Table 2.

CHO ingestion during longer distance events e. Older guidelines Coyle, recommended that distance athletes should experiment with hourly CHO intakes within the range of 30—60 g to find a beneficial strategy. More contemporary recommendations Burke et al.

The limiting factor was subsequently found to be intestinal absorption, particularly the sodium-dependent glucose transporter, rather than gastric emptying, hepatic glucose extraction, muscle glucose uptake, or muscle glucose oxidation Jeukendrup, However, as reviewed by Jeukendrup b , sodium-dependent glucose transporter abundance and activity in animals is increased by a CHO-rich diet; furthermore, chronic exposure to higher CHO intakes by athletes, including exercise intake, increases gut tolerance, intestinal absorption, and muscle oxidation of CHO consumed during exercise Costa et al.

Combining glucose-based CHO sources with fructose transported in the intestine by GLUT5 increases total exogenous CHO oxidation during exercise, with rates as high as 1. A range of sports drinks, gels, and confectionery is available to meet various targets, both in training and racing, around taste, practicality, balanced intake of fluid and CHO, inclusion of multiple transportable CHO sources, electrolyte replacement, and supplementation with caffeine, while other everyday foods and drinks may also be used.

Furthermore, the associated BM reduction may partially compensate for the disadvantages of dehydration. We recommend that athletes develop a personalized and practiced race plan that optimizes fluid and CHO status within the prevailing conditions and opportunities of each event. Indeed, some recent elite marathons, including the Berlin event in which the most recent world record was set, have increased the frequency of feed zones every 2.

A personalized drinking plan can be adjusted to all levels of runners, including recreational competitors who may drink in volumes exceeding their sweat rates and who should be warned about the dangers of developing hyponatremia Almond et al. The specific needs of long-distance races raise potential new uses of sports foods and performance supplements, based on the specific physiological, biochemical, and central nervous system factors that limit performance in these races, as well as the opportunity to consume products within the event, at least for races of half marathon and longer.

Only a handful of the multitude of performance supplements marketed to athletes have a strong evidence base. Peeling et al. Indeed, the evidence base for these performance products relies on summaries of the general endurance sports literature McMahon et al.

While the known benefits of these strategies provide a benchmark against which the magnitude of any effects from other performance products should be compared, these also provide a potential confounder of the effectiveness of other performance supplements.

For example, a meta-analysis of a heterogeneous group of studies of caffeine supplementation and endurance performance Conger et al. This illustrates why potential interactions between concurrently used supplements or nutrition strategies are of high priority for scientific investigation and specific consideration when developing race plans or training uses Burke et al.

The efficacy of caffeine during endurance sports may be correlated with its role in masking fatigue Spriet, ; therefore, in situations in which another strategy reduces the onset or magnitude or fatigue, a smaller effect on performance is logical.

Other issues associated with caffeine or nitrate use in distance Athletics are noted in Tables 4 and 5. Finally, the potential for enhanced glycogen storage following creatine supplementation Roberts et al. There are multiple and circular interactions between the hot environment and nutrition; exercise in the heat creates extra challenges in terms of increased rates of fluid loss and glycogen use Jentjens et al.

The performance and health challenges associated with racing in hot weather should be addressed by strategies, such as acclimatization, appropriate pacing, and precooling activities Racinais et al.

Adjustment to race nutrition strategies, if practical, may also assist Table 2. For example, a more aggressive approach to in-race hydration strategies to address greater fluid losses may be possible, while hyperhydration during the hours before a race via the consumption of large amounts of fluid together with an osmotic agent e.

The literature on the specific benefits of these strategies see Table 6 in high-performance running or racewalking scenarios is sparse; an investigation is required, including the assessment of potential disadvantages such as an increase in BM or a greater risk of gut disturbances.

In the meantime, athletes should practice the intended use of these strategies before implementing in a race. Although dietary surveys of Kenyan and Ethiopian runners have been limited to their home environments and training camps Beis et al.

Mooses, personal observations, Dec 10, A range of features, both consistent and in contrast to current sports nutrition guidelines, merit comment. Typical fluid choices include water 0.

Meanwhile, meals are consumed soon after training sessions, and high-intensity track sessions are completed as a midmorning workout after breakfast.

Indeed, many concepts of periodizing CHO availability according to the needs of the session Burke et al. Although supplements are rarely used, data from observational studies Beis et al.

Also of topical interest is the reported or suspected prevalence of acute or chronic periods of low energy availability among these athletes. Notwithstanding artifacts in dietary survey methodology and calculations of energy availability Burke et al. Contributors to energy mismatches include cultural eating patterns e.

Further study is needed to consolidate our understanding of the dietary practices of these highly successful athletes and how much they contribute to, or interfere with, optimal performance. It is likely that practices include both helpful and harmful features, as well as accidental and intentional elements.

As for any group of athletes, an audit of practices may identify the potential for performance improvement, but various practical and personal issues need to be taken into account. Nearly years ago, Krogh and Lindhard reported that energy derived from the metabolic consumption of O 2 depends on whether fat or CHO is the primary source of carbon substrate.

For example, increasing the respiratory quotient RQ from 0. In the D. Dill lecture at the annual conference of the American College of Sports Medicine, Professor Ron Maughan identified the important implications of this finding for marathon performance; an increase in RQ improves metabolic efficiency by reducing the O 2 cost of running at a particular speed or permitting a higher speed for the same absolute V ˙ O 2.

This contradicts the conventional recommendation that endurance athletes should spare their finite CHO reserves by maximizing the use of fat as a substrate. However, it is supported by the findings of an increased O 2 cost of race walking at speeds related to race performance when rates of fat oxidation were markedly increased by adaptation to a ketogenic low CHO, high-fat diet Burke et al.

Theoretically, this could be provided by CHO g in the form of supercompensated muscle and liver glycogen stores supplemented by an aggressive approach to consuming CHO during the race.

However, even more subtle changes in RQ can be meaningful. For example, an athlete with a sustainable V ˙ O 2 of 3. Jones, personal observations May 6, ; Caesar, Further rigorous study of this concept is needed, but it may become part of the formula for further enhancement of distance running performance.

Distance athletes should adopt nutrition strategies that address specific physiological and biochemical factors that otherwise limit performance. In-race nutrition is dependent on practicalities, such as the availability of aid stations as well as time and gut considerations of consuming CHO-containing fluids or other sports products.

Finally, several performance supplements, particularly caffeine and nitrate, could be considered for likely and potential benefits, respectively. All authors contributed to the preparation of this manuscript. The authors declare no conflicts of interest in the preparation of this review.

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Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 42 5 , — Cox , G. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1 , — Coyle , E. Timing and method of increased carbohydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition and recovery.

Journal of Sports Science, 9 Suppl. Physiological regulation of marathon performance. Sports Medicine, 37 4—5 , — Muscle glycogen utilisation during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 61 , — de Castro , T. Effect of beetroot juice supplementation on km performance in recreational runners. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 44 1 , 90 — Fudge , B.

A well-planned diet will meet your vitamin and mineral needs. Supplements will only be of any benefit if your diet is inadequate or you have a diagnosed deficiency, such as an iron or calcium deficiency.

There is no evidence that extra doses of vitamins improve sporting performance. Nutritional supplements can be found in pill, tablet, capsule, powder or liquid form, and cover a broad range of products including:. Before using supplements, you should consider what else you can do to improve your sporting performance — diet, training and lifestyle changes are all more proven and cost effective ways to improve your performance.

Relatively few supplements that claim performance benefits are supported by sound scientific evidence. Use of vitamin and mineral supplements is also potentially dangerous. Supplements should not be taken without the advice of a qualified health professional. The ethical use of sports supplements is a personal choice by athletes, and it remains controversial.

If taking supplements, you are also at risk of committing an anti-doping rule violation no matter what level of sport you play.

Dehydration can impair athletic performance and, in extreme cases, may lead to collapse and even death. Drinking plenty of fluids before, during and after exercise is very important. Fluid intake is particularly important for events lasting more than 60 minutes, of high intensity or in warm conditions.

Water is a suitable drink, but sports drinks may be required, especially in endurance events or warm climates. Sports drinks contain some sodium, which helps absorption. While insufficient hydration is a problem for many athletes, excess hydration may also be potentially dangerous.

In rare cases, athletes might consume excessive amounts of fluids that dilute the blood too much, causing a low blood concentration of sodium. This condition is called hyponatraemia, which can potentially lead to seizures, collapse, coma or even death if not treated appropriately.

Consuming fluids at a level of to ml per hour of exercise might be a suitable starting point to avoid dehydration and hyponatraemia, although intake should ideally be customised to individual athletes, considering variable factors such as climate, sweat rates and tolerance.

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Healthy eating. Home Healthy eating. Sporting performance and food. Actions for this page Listen Print. Summary Read the full fact sheet. On this page. Nutrition and exercise The link between good health and good nutrition is well established.

Daily training diet requirements The basic training diet should be sufficient to: provide enough energy and nutrients to meet the demands of training and exercise enhance adaptation and recovery between training sessions include a wide variety of foods like wholegrain breads and cereals , vegetables particularly leafy green varieties , fruit , lean meat and low-fat dairy products to enhance long term nutrition habits and behaviours enable the athlete to achieve optimal body weight and body fat levels for performance provide adequate fluids to ensure maximum hydration before, during and after exercise promote the short and long-term health of athletes.

Carbohydrates are essential for fuel and recovery Current recommendations for carbohydrate requirements vary depending on the duration, frequency and intensity of exercise.

Eating during exercise During exercise lasting more than 60 minutes, an intake of carbohydrate is required to top up blood glucose levels and delay fatigue.

In these scenarios, with the primary goal to restore depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores as quickly as possible [ 1 ], practical recovery-focused carbohydrate recommendations for team sport athletes include the consumption of 1.

A variety of carbohydrate sources from both food and fluids are effective in restoring glycogen stores; the choice being determined by athlete preference e. Moderate-to-high glycemic-index carbohydrate choices are prudent because glycogen storage will, in part, be regulated by rapid glucose supply and insulin response [ 52 ].

Sucrose may be preferential over glucose, owing to enhanced liver glycogen repletion [ 53 ] and, where the intake of carbohydrates is sub-optimal, the addition of protein 0. Finally, alcohol should be limited post-exercise as suboptimal dietary choices that often accompany alcohol may compromise muscle glycogen replenishment [ 55 ].

In such scenarios, regularly spaced and nutrient-dense meals are likely sufficient to meet the recovery demands of the athlete. Finally, a flexible, periodized, and personalized approach to carbohydrate availability during the post-exercise period is essential to ensure short-term recovery is optimized and longer term adaptation enhanced [ 47 ].

Rehydration i. Indeed, commencing exercise in a hypohydrated state can impair performance, especially when training or competing in the heat [ 58 ].

The composition of a beverage consumed after exercise can have a significant impact on the rehydration process. In addition, it is clear that sodium significantly improves post-exercise rehydration through its impact on fluid retention [ 57 ]. The increase in plasma sodium concentration and osmolality with sodium ingestion stimulates renal water reabsorption i.

In turn, this would slow the appearance of fluid into the circulation and attenuate diuresis during rehydration. Other proposed mechanisms, particularly regarding the fluid retention benefits of lower carbohydrate concentrations e.

However, most studies report that whey protein per se does not confer improved fluid retention compared with water or sports drinks [ 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 ]. The mechanism to explain these results may be that clotting of the casein in milk delays gastric emptying [ 70 ] and slows intestinal fluid absorption compared with whey protein [ 77 ] or glucose drinks [ 78 ].

However, more research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying fluid retention improvements reported with the ingestion of protein, as well as carbohydrate-containing beverages after exercise.

In summary, beverage composition is an important consideration for post-exercise rehydration and the components found to have a significant positive impact are sodium, carbohydrates, and milk protein [ 56 , 79 , 80 ].

To achieve rapid and complete rehydration, expert panels recommend athletes drink 1. Providing a chilled beverage with flavor and sweetness can improve beverage palatability and voluntary fluid intake after exercise [ 81 ].

The n-3 PUFA are a group of polyunsaturated fatty acids characterized biochemically by a double bond at the third carbon from the methyl end of the carbon chain. The n-3 PUFA are essential fatty acids, meaning they must be consumed through dietary sources. Dietary and supplemental sources of n-3 PUFA include cold water fatty fish such as tuna and salmon, fish oils, and krill oil.

The most bioactive of the n-3 PUFA are eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA [ 82 ]. Recently, n-3 PUFA have received considerable attention in the context of nutritional support for recovery.

This attention stems from scientific rationale underpinning a role for n-3 PUFA in promoting muscle remodeling, muscle repair, and immune surveillance. However, a limited number of studies investigating the role of n-3 PUFA in recovery have been performed in elite athletes.

A topic of recent interest concerns the role of n-3 PUFA in facilitating the remodeling of skeletal muscle proteins during recovery. As highlighted in Sect. As such, there is current interest in the synergistic role of other nutrients alongside protein for increasing the utilization of ingested protein for stimulation of MPS during recovery [ 30 ].

Proof-of-concept studies in young [ 83 ] and older [ 84 ] adults demonstrated that 8 weeks of fish oil-derived n-3 PUFA 1. The mechanism proposed to explain this priming action of n-3 PUFA in stimulating MPS involves the direct incorporation of n-3 PUFA into the muscle phospholipid membrane [ 83 , 85 ].

Such structural modifications to the muscle cell membrane are associated with an increased activation of membrane-bound cell signaling proteins, including focal adhesion kinase, Akt, and mTORC1 [ 85 ].

Because experimental studies in cell culture reveal that EPA, rather than DHA, is the active ingredient stimulating MPS [ 82 ], these proof-of-principle studies suggest a role for EPA-rich n-3 PUFA in facilitating muscle remodeling.

A physiologically relevant follow-up study in resistance-trained young male individuals demonstrated that 8 weeks of fish oil supplementation failed to modulate rates of MPS in response to feeding 30 g 0.

Thus, when ingesting a protein dose known to stimulate a maximal response of MPS [ 86 , 87 ], fish oil supplementation confers no advantage for skeletal muscle remodeling during recovery. Future work is warranted to investigate the influence of n-3 PUFA supplementation on the response of MPS to ingesting a suboptimal protein dose.

These data may reveal a context-specific role for n-3 PUFA in facilitating skeletal muscle protein remodeling if the athlete is unable to tolerate ingesting an optimal ~0.

As a note of caution, a potential side effect of n-3 PUFA intake is blood thinning [ 89 ]. Therefore, athletes with a history of bleeding issues should consult with a physician before taking large doses of n-3 PUFA.

The role of n-3 PUFA also has been investigated in the context of less severe soft-tissue injuries caused by intense exercise.

The anti-inflammatory properties of n-3 PUFA are proposed to ameliorate feelings of muscle soreness and impairments in muscle function associated with eccentric exercise [ 90 ]. The model most commonly employed by laboratory-controlled studies to elicit eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage consists of untrained volunteers performing repeated muscle contractions using an isokinetic dynamometer.

Hence, the external validity of study findings to recovery from team-based sporting activities must be considered with caution. Nevertheless, studies have shown a protective role for n-3 PUFA intake in attenuating muscle soreness [ 91 , 92 ] and oxidative stress [ 93 ] 48 h after exercise. Given the direct incorporation of n-3 PUFA into the muscle cell membrane [ 85 ] and the potential for n-3 PUFA to modify the structural integrity of the cell membrane, these preliminary data suggest a protective role for n-3 PUFA in reducing the muscle-damaging effects of eccentric-based muscle loading.

Future studies investigating the protective role of n-3 PUFA during short-term recovery should be conducted in high-performance athletes, simulate real-world muscle-damaging exercise e. The n-3 PUFA also exhibit immunomodulatory properties. In addition to initiating anti-inflammatory mediators, termed resolvins [ 94 ], EPA and DHA also alter neutrophil proliferation and monocyte phagocytosis [ 95 ].

Two recent studies implicate a role for n-3 PUFA in improving the immune status of recreationally trained volunteers during recovery [ 93 , 96 ]. Consistent with these short-term findings, a recent longitudinal study reported fewer symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection when volunteers received a fish-oil-containing supplement during 16 weeks of training [ 96 ].

Taken together, these preliminary results suggest a potential role of n-3 PUFA in improving immune status over the course of a season in team sport athletes and thus warrant further investigation.

See Table 1 for practical strategies related to the sources and dosages of n-3 PUFA. Individuals obtain vitamin D precursors from sun exposure or diet. The amount of vitamin D obtained from sun exposure is highly variable, depending on factors such as latitude, environment, season, skin pigmentation, clothing, and sunscreen use.

Therefore, obtaining vitamin D from the diet or supplements may be important to maintain appropriate status. Because of athlete compliance, a common practice is to megadose weekly with high-dose vitamin D supplements; however, recent research suggests this is a practice that should be considered with caution and may be ineffective [ 99 ].

An aspect of recovery following intense exercise is the repair of damaged muscle tissue via satellite cell activation.

While many factors influence this repair process, emerging data suggest a role for vitamin D [ ]. Research in animal cell models indicates that treatment with vitamin D may play a role in muscle regeneration via satellite cell activation followed by myoblast proliferation, migration, and differentiation see a recent review [ ] for further details.

Vitamin D treatment resulted in improved migration, and myotube differentiation [ ] in a muscle biopsy of vitamin D-deficient subjects after mechanical injury. Research in a rodent model has demonstrated improved cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis following muscle injury crushing with vitamin D treatment [ ].

Taken together, this work conducted in isolated muscle cells indicates a role for vitamin D in the repair dynamics of skeletal muscle. Four studies have been published to date related to the specific role of vitamin D for muscle recovery in humans. Muscle weakness measured as peak isometric force or peak torque was chosen as the measure of recovery because it is reflective of both degeneration and regeneration, remains suppressed until repair is complete, and is a functional outcome for the athlete [ ].

Ring et al. By contrast, using lower body exercise, Barker et al. control leg. While correlating vitamin D status to functional outcomes indicates a possible relationship, intervention studies are needed to determine whether improving status can result in improved recovery.

In a follow-up study, Barker et al. After 28 days of supplementation, subjects completed a one-leg eccentric protocol to induce muscle damage.

A major limitation of this study was that vitamin D status was not accounted for at baseline and groups were not randomized based on initial status. A carefully controlled intervention protocol conducted by Owens et al. Before and after supplementation, subjects completed eccentric exercise to induce muscle damage of the knee extensors followed by peak torque measurement over 7 days of recovery.

Peak torque was improved in the vitamin D-supplemented group at 48 h and 7 days post-exercise, as compared with placebo. The authors suggested these were promising preliminary data, but further studies are needed with a larger sample size and varying exercise protocols to induce muscle damage.

In summary, more work is necessary to clarify the benefit of vitamin D for athletic muscle recovery, including the interaction with protein intake.

Unlike the recommendation to consume protein shortly following athletic activity, shrot-term vitamin D consumption will likely not influence muscle repair. Despite these and other outstanding questions, the available data suggest vitamin D may play a role in the muscle repair and recovery process.

See Table 1 for practical strategies related to sources and dosages of vitamin D. Exogenous antioxidants include vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoids [ ], as well as flavanols e. Endogenous antioxidants e.

Both endogenous and exogenous antioxidants work in synergy to protect the body from damage caused by free radicals and maintain redox balance [ , ].

It is important to note that excessive amounts of free radicals or antioxidants can be problematic owing to the disruption of redox balance [ ]. While strenuous exercise increases oxidative stress, it also appears to upregulate endogenous antioxidant production i. Research indicates that ROS are important signaling molecules for adaptations to occur in the skeletal muscle [ , ], while low levels of ROS are needed to support muscular force production [ ].

As such, large amounts of antioxidants may impair recovery by blunting the regenerative process that ROS support [ , ].

Research regarding the effects of antioxidants on training adaptations and recovery has produced mixed results. Thompson et al. The vitamin C intervention improved recovery of maximal contractile function 24 h following the eccentric exercise protocol.

After training, increases in mitochondrial biogenesis markers i. Another study administered a vitamin supplement containing mg of vitamin C, mg of vitamin E, 2 mg of vitamin B6, µg of folic acid, 5 µg of zinc sulfate monohydrate, and 1 µg of vitamin B 12 or placebo over a period of 6 weeks [ ].

There were no differences between the supplement and placebo groups in inflammation or muscle function 7 days after muscle damaging exercise [ ]. Finally, antioxidants delivered as a cocktail mg of α-tocopherol, mg of vitamin C, 30 mg of β-carotene, 2 mg of lutein, µg of selenium, 30 mg of zinc, and mg of magnesium long term over a period of 4 weeks had no impact on muscle damage or exercise-induced inflammation after subjects completed a km kayaking race [ ].

Vitamin E supplementation may be efficacious in some situations, but applications are very limited e. Supplementation of vitamin C or vitamin E in isolation or combined show little benefit protecting against muscle damage and supplementation with large doses may negatively impact ROS signaling functions [ ].

In short, some studies have demonstrated that antioxidants may blunt adaptations, while others have shown no detrimental effect on various responses to exercise e.

In a review, Braakhuis and Hopkins [ ] have suggested that 1 long-term supplementation with dietary antioxidants may be detrimental to training adaptations, and 2 long-term intake of certain polyphenols such as epicatechin or resveratrol may provide a benefit when paired with exercise training.

However, the review also concluded additional research is warranted. Additional studies have examined the effect of dietary sources of antioxidants, such as fruits and vegetables, on recovery. Beetroot juice, commonly ingested for its potential performance-enhancing effects [ ], has also demonstrated a role in supporting training adaptations both short term [ ] and long term [ ].

Some emerging evidence suggests that beetroot juice may support aspects of exercise recovery by mitigating loss of muscle function [ ] and soreness [ , ] after certain types of exercise [ ].

However, not all studies have demonstrated a benefit with beetroot juice ingestion on mitigating soreness or exercise-induced inflammation post-exercise [ ].

There is also an emerging body of literature on the effects of other antioxidant rich fruits such as tart cherry [ , ], pomegranate [ , ], and blackcurrant BC [ ] on recovery. Tart cherry has been shown to reduce markers of inflammation [ ], decrease perceptions of soreness [ ], and improve redox balance [ ] compared with placebo after exercise.

Pomegranate juice has been shown to reduce muscle soreness and weakness in elbow flexors following an eccentric elbow flexion protocol [ ]. Ammar et al. Blackcurrant has been studied for its effects on exercise performance [ , ], substrate oxidation [ ], and physiological measures, such as blood lactate level [ , , ].

Only one study has tested the effects of BC on exercise-induced muscle damage, subjective ratings of muscle soreness, and inflammation post-exercise [ ]. In a parallel-design study, moderately active subjects consumed 16 oz of a BC nectar or placebo twice daily over the course of 8 days.

On the fourth day, subjects completed a series of eccentric squatting exercises. The BC group had lower plasma IL-6 levels than the placebo group after 24 h but not 48 or 96 h post-exercise. At both 48 and 96 h post-exercise, CK was lower in the BC group compared with the placebo group.

However, there were no differences in soreness post-exercise with BC compared with placebo. The lack of crossover design limits the interpretation of the data.

Additional research is warranted to determine the efficacy of BC. Additional research is needed to understand the impact that different antioxidants may have on recovery and training adaptations.

Because of the potential for antioxidant supplementation to blunt training adaptations, caution should be used when the athlete is training to improve aerobic capacity or maximize strength gains.

Consideration of antioxidant use also rests within the timing of the season and caliber of athlete. In the collegiate or professional setting, athletes may seek to increase their adaptive response to training during the off-season, while their focus may shift to maintenance during the season.

High school athletes may differ in that they transition to different sports from season to season. Until more is known, focusing on a well-balanced diet including fruits and vegetables to obtain antioxidants may be a more appropriate alternative to supplementing with individual antioxidants [ ].

There seems to be no evidence at this time to suggest that consumption of fruits and vegetables blunts exercise-induced adaptations [ ].

Creatine is a non-essential nutrient that is produced endogenously in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys, and is also consumed through the diet [ ]. The CK reaction is a particularly important source of adenosine triphosphate during times of high energy demand, such as maximal exercise.

An overwhelming majority of the research on safety [ ] and efficacy has focused on creatine monohydrate. No advantage has been shown using different formulations of creatine, which typically contain less creatine and can be more expensive [ ]. In this review, unless otherwise specified, creatine supplementation will refer to creatine monohydrate supplementation.

While the pre-exercise performance-enhancing effects of creatine supplementation have been well documented, several studies also point to a potential role for creatine as a post-exercise recovery aid. It seems that increasing muscle creatine via creatine monohydrate supplementation supports many of these benefits [ , ].

Following intense exercise, muscle phosphocreatine and glycogen are depleted, but creatine supplementation may enhance recovery of these important fuel sources. Greenhaff et al. As post-exercise phosphocreatine resynthesis takes several minutes to complete, faster re-synthesis may enhance recovery from a short-term bout of exercise and thereby improve performance in a subsequent bout.

Similarly, several studies have reported increased muscle glycogen following creatine supplementation reviewed in [ ]. Roberts et al. Improved post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis with creatine ingestion could enhance a subsequent bout of exercise hours or days later.

The effects of creatine supplementation on MPS and muscle protein breakdown MPB have been investigated under various conditions [ , , ]. Parise et al. Louis et al. Thus, it seems that increased fat-free mass subsequent to creatine supplementation is not mediated directly through measureable increased MPS or decreased MPB.

However, other groups have demonstrated that creatine supplementation may be valuable for recovery through the increased expression of proteins and growth factors or cells that participate in the muscle remodeling process [ , , , ].

Further, Deldicque et al. In addition, creatine supplementation has been shown to augment the resistance training increase in satellite cell number and myonuclei concentration [ ].

Safdar et al. These beneficial effects are not entirely surprising, as creatine supplementation draws water into the muscle cell [ ], and it is known that cellular hyper-hydration inhibits protein breakdown and RNA degradation, and stimulates glycogen [ ], protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis [ , ].

Several groups have investigated the effects of creatine supplementation on markers of exercise-induced muscle damage following eccentric [ , , , ], resistance [ , , ], endurance [ , , ], and sprint exercise [ ].

Cooke et al. Rosene et al. Following repeated bouts of resistance exercise, Veggi et al. Although beneficial effects were not noted in all investigations [ , ], it seems that creatine monohydrate may play a role in reducing the cellular disruption associated with resistance exercise.

Finally, Deminice [ ] reported that creatine blunted the post-sprint exercise six m sprints increase in C-reactive protein, TNF-α, and lactate dehydrogenase, even though power production increased.

The available data suggest that creatine supplementation prior to an endurance or sprint exercise challenge reduces both muscle damage and inflammation.

No studies have shown increased markers of muscle damage in creatine-supplemented individuals under either resting or post-exercise conditions reviewed in [ ]. In summary, a large number of studies support the use of creatine monohydrate as a sports performance enhancer and also as an adjunct to resistance training that can increase fat-free mass, strength, and fatigue resistance.

Further, several studies indicate that increasing muscle creatine content through creatine supplementation creates an intracellular environment that encourages better recovery between short-term bouts of exercise and during long-term exercise training. Curcumin is a component of the spice turmeric and is often used to reduce inflammation.

Its mechanism of action may be related to the inhibition of cyclooxygenase, TNF-α, and other proinflammatory agents [ ]. The effects of curcumin have been demonstrated in studies related to inflammatory conditions such as arthritis [ ].

Nicol et al. This study also reported a small reduction in a marker of muscle injury i. Similarly, McFarlin et al. McFarlin et al. Neither study found a reduction in serum levels of IL-6 [ , ].

Even though positive effects of curcumin have been found during intense eccentric muscle injury protocols, endurance exercise trials have not produced significant reductions in DOMS or inflammatory markers [ ].

Sciberras et al. There were no significant differences in serum IL-6, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL, cortisol, or C-reactive protein post-exercise between the curcumin supplementation group, placebo, or control no supplementation [ ].

In summary, supplementation with curcumin may be beneficial for athletes participating in high-intensity exercise with a significant eccentric load. Consuming mg or more of curcumin via the spice turmeric in the diet in an effort to decrease inflammatory cytokines or reduce DOMs is unrealistic. However, highly bioavailable alternatives have been produced and may prove more useful in decreasing inflammatory issues but need to be explored further.

Bromelain is a proteolytic enzyme found in both the stem and fruit of pineapple [ , ] and has been studied as a treatment for a number of inflammatory conditions in humans [ ]. The proposed mechanism of action of bromelain is reducing the production of proinflammatory prostaglandin production without affecting anti-inflammatory prostaglandins [ ].

However, it is important to recognize that the primary effect of bromelain is as a protease; an enzyme that cuts other proteins and regulates clot formation and resorption after an injury [ ]. Therefore, if exercise does not induce a significant membrane injury that results in fibrin clot formation, the effectiveness of bromelain may be limited.

Bromelain has been extensively studied in inflammatory disease states in the general population. There is less information available on its effects in an athletic population.

It was first suggested to provide a benefit for muscular injuries in an experiment using hamsters performing eccentric exercise [ ]. However, Stone et al. found that in humans, neither mg of ibuprofen nor mg of bromelain was better than placebo at reducing DOMS after resistance exercise in untrained subjects [ ].

Similarly, Shing et al. Although bromelain in isolation may have a limited effect on muscle injury in athletes, there may be a benefit when used in combination with other protease inhibitors.

Buford et al. Similarly, bromelain 50 mg in conjunction with other proteases mg of pancreatic enzymes, 75 mg of trypsin, 50 mg of papain, 10 mg of amylase, 10 mg of lipase, 10 mg of lysozyme, 2 mg of chymotrypsin taken four times a day, 1 day before and 3 days after downhill running improved muscle function 24 and 48 h after exercise when compared with placebo [ ].

The particular blend of proteases used by Miller et al. However, more research is needed to understand the potential effects of proteases on DOMS in athletes as well as the underlying physiological mechanisms.

Collagen is the primary structural protein in connective tissues such as bone, tendon, ligament, and cartilage. Gelatin is a food product used to produce gummy sweets that is produced by partial hydrolysis of the collagen extracted from the skin, bones, and connective tissues of animals.

Hydrolyzed collagen is further broken down so that it is soluble in water and no longer forms a gel. The notion that gelatin and vitamin C can improve collagen synthesis in connective tissues has been confirmed using an in-vitro model of a ligament where treating with pro-collagen amino acids and vitamin C increased collagen production three fold [ ].

In humans, consuming gelatin 1 h before a short period of mechanical loading is able to double the amount of the amino-terminal propeptide Procollagen I N-terminal Propeptide of type I collagen in the blood [ ].

This indicates that gelatin can improve the collagen synthesis response to loading. Longer term supplementation with collagen hydrolysate has further been shown to improve cartilage function in patients with osteoarthritis [ ]. In this study, McAlindon et al. In agreement with this finding, a week randomized clinical trial in athletes showed that 10 g of collagen hydrolysate significantly decreased knee pain [ ].

More interestingly, even though the pure amino acid proline could be incorporated into skin collagen as well as gelatin, gelatin was incorporated into the collagen of cartilage and muscle twice as much as tracer from proline [ ]. These data suggest that musculoskeletal collagen synthesis is greater in response to gelatin or hydrolyzed collagen than to the individual amino acids.

Even though there are strong data to suggest that supplementing with gelatin and vitamin C can benefit connective tissues, additional research is warranted to explore the benefit to athletes.

Future research is needed to determine the dose and frequency of gelatin and vitamin C ingestion needed. Additional questions include: 1 Does supplementation decrease injuries or accelerate the return to play after injury? Team sport athletes frequently travel throughout the competitive season, with some sports requiring travel immediately after competition to prepare for a game the following day.

With long-distance travel, not only does the athlete face the challenge of being fatigued from competition but also from jet lag while traveling across multiple time zones. Jet lag symptoms include impaired sleep, fatigue, headaches, general malaise, and loss of concentration and motivation from the disruption of circadian rhythms [ , ].

Nutrient timing and meal composition have been proposed as potential dietary interventions to reduce symptoms of jet lag by enhancing adaptation of circadian clocks [ , , , , , ].

Amino acids and fish oils have also been shown to accelerate entrainment of the circadian clock when incorporating a jet lag model in rodents [ , ]. Hirao et al. However, the impact of these dietary interventions on athletes to modify jet lag symptoms is unclear. Moreover, the results in animal models likely have limited application to athletes because the studies employed a h food deprivation protocol prior to feeding [ , , , ].

Interestingly, animal studies suggest that hypercaloric diets high in fat and alcohol consumption could alter circadian clock synchronization to light, resulting in a slower rate of re-entrainment i. Only two clinical trials in humans have examined meal composition as a cue to modify peripheral circadian clocks [ , ].

Kräuchi et al. Over a 3-day period, subjects were only allowed to consume one carbohydrate-rich meal either in the morning or evening. In another study, Reynolds et al. Four days prior to departure, soldiers incorporated the diet, which involved alternating high-caloric days no caloric limit with days of low caloric intake limited to kcal [ ].

The high-calorie days consisted of high-protein meals for breakfast and lunch and carbohydrates for dinner with fruits and vegetables being consumed on low-calorie days [ ]. Although the notion of incorporating nutritional strategies to reduce jet lag symptoms is attractive, currently, there is limited research to support such implementation with athletes.

Instead, athletes should focus on nutritional strategies to promote recovery during air travel. Alternative methods to reduce jet lag symptoms e. Meeting the personalized nutrition recommendations to enhance recovery as discussed in the macronutrient and fluid recommendation section Sect.

Factors such as limited or unfamiliar food items and lack of access to fluids are some of the challenges athletes face during commercial flights. During air travel, limited food options may not provide the adequate macronutrient content the athlete needs to recover.

Further, unfamiliar food items could cause potential gastrointestinal distress [ 13 ]. It is therefore important for athletes to plan ahead when traveling for competition and to pack non-perishable food items and fluids to help meet individual macronutrient and fluid needs to enhance recovery.

If traveling internationally, athletes should consider culture differences based on the location of their travel and practice proper hygiene standards to avoid potential gastrointestinal pathogens from food and water [ 13 , , ]. It has been suggested that an extra 15—20 mL of fluids should be consumed for each hour of flight owing to increased moisture losses from the respiratory tract [ 13 ].

However, this would only equate to — mL of additional fluid loss during a h flight. The practical impact of incorporating additional fluids to account for respiratory losses during air travel beyond the post-exercise fluid replacement recommendations [ 81 ] is likely not warranted.

Athletes should be encouraged to avoid or limit alcohol consumption post-competition during flights to promote rehydration [ 13 , 81 , , ]. A more comprehensive discussion on nutrition and travel may be found elsewhere [ 13 , , ].

Many supplements and strategies exist that are claimed to support recovery and performance in-season, with varying levels of efficacy. Prior to initiating any supplementation, the athlete must consume a diet adequate in protein, carbohydrates, fat, and micronutrients.

Without this foundation, the additional benefits of even efficacious supplements will be limited. The goal of a recovery meal is to provide the athlete with the nutrients needed to support MPS and glycogen repletion as well as rehydration.

An kg team sport athlete should aim for 20—24 g 0. This could be accomplished through the consumption of 85— g 3—4 oz of meat, poultry, or fish, with 1. The athlete could also include dietary sources of antioxidants and n-3 PUFA within this meal to support recovery.

Once the athlete has established this dietary foundation, supplementation with selected nutrients may provide an additional benefit to recovery, such as those listed in Table 1. In addition to focusing on evidence-based supplements, the athlete must also be aware that supplements are not well regulated and may include ingredients that are banned by the World Anti Doping Agency [ ].

It is important that athletes choose supplements that have been third-party tested for quality and safety. Team sport athletes face many challenges in regard to in-season recovery.

Because of the limited opportunities to recover between competitions, combined with busy travel schedules, athletes must be deliberate in their recovery strategies Table 1.

Protein, carbohydrates, and fluid are commonly acknowledged as important components of the recovery process. Nutrients such as curcumin and bromelain may also have potential benefits, although further research is warranted and the dose likely to provide a benefit far exceeds what an individual could consume through food however, inclusion of the natural sources of these nutrients would not be harmful.

Consuming antioxidants via whole foods in the diet provides anti-inflammatory benefits while limiting the negative impact supplemental antioxidant intake can have on training adaptations.

Special considerations must also be made to support the demands of air travel, central to which will be the need for advanced planning. Finally, athletes should always seek professional advice before adopting nutritional strategies with the intent to improve recovery in-season.

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Gai Z, Wang Q, Yang C, et al. Structural mechanism for the arginine sensing and regulation of CASTOR1 in the mTORC1 signaling pathway. For a lb individual, this amounts to grams of carbohydrate per day, spaced out over the course of the day.

Very high intensity training of more than hours per day is even higher and low intensity exercise falls below the moderate range. Specifics on these ranges can be found here. Carbohydrates are essential for the athlete as well as overall health.

The best way to optimize glycogen stores is to eat carbohydrate rich foods daily and with every meal. Familiarizing yourself with portions of carbohydrates can help gauge if you are consuming enough each day. For example, per one cup serving, rolled oats provides 27 grams of carbohydrates, brown rice- 45 grams, beans- 40 grams, and sweet potato- 27 grams.

To maximize the nutrition gained from each food, choose a variety of whole food sources. Dense sources of carbohydrates are whole grains, pulses, beans, legumes, and starchy vegetables such as sweet potatoes, parsnips, corn, and winter squash.

Protein plays a part in numerous functions in the body such as digestion, energy production, muscle contracting, forming hormones, providing structure, balancing fluid, supporting immune health, and facilitating muscle repair and rebuilding.

Protein is not the most efficient energy source, so for protein to be utilized for essential functions, it is important to consume enough carbohydrates and fat.

For athletes, protein needs are higher than the average individual and the amount needed increases as the intensity of training increases.

The recommended range for athletes is 1. For an individual weighing lb, this amounts to grams per day. Intake should be spaced throughout the day.

To ensure you are continually hydrated, pay attention to the color of your urine. Aim for a pale-yellow color like light lemonade. The American College of Sports Medicine advises athletes consume ml 17 oz, or just slightly over 2 cups of water 2 hours before exercise to allow time for excretion.

Coming into an event hydrated and then maintaining hydration throughout will help maximize performance. Dehydration will increase body temperature and put more strain on the cardiovascular system.

It will also lead to fatigue, muscle cramping, and may even hinder coordination. Weighing yourself before and after training can help you determine how much water you need to consume to prevent too much loss. During more active seasons, aim for the upper range, and during less active times, aim for the lower range.

For a lb individual this equates to oz range, or cups of fluid. For exercise less than 60 minutes, it is typically not necessary to consume a sports drink or anything other than water. For intense activity lasting longer than 60 minutes, The American College of Sports Medicine recommends grams of carbohydrates per hour.

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Journal of Applied Physiology, 63 , — Jeukendrup is with the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom. Jones is with the Department of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom.

Mooses is with the Institute of Sport Sciences and Physiotherapy, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia. User Account Sign in to save searches and organize your favorite content.

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Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers. in International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. Louise M. Burke Louise M. Burke Australian Institute of Sport Australian Catholic University Search for other papers by Louise M.

Burke in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. Asker E. Jeukendrup Asker E. Jeukendrup Loughborough University Search for other papers by Asker E. Jeukendrup in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. Andrew M. Jones Andrew M. Jones University of Exeter Search for other papers by Andrew M.

Jones in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. Martin Mooses Martin Mooses University of Tartu Search for other papers by Martin Mooses in Current site Google Scholar PubMed Close. In Print: Volume Issue 2. Page Range: — Open access. Get Citation Alerts.

Download PDF. Abstract Full Text PDF Author Notes. Table 1 Characteristics of Key Distance Events in Athletics Event 10,m track race Cross country Table 2 Nutrition Strategies for High-Performance Athletes in Key Distance Events in Athletics Issues and general guidelines 10,m track race km cross country Race Preparation Race preparation should include strategies to store muscle glycogen in the amounts commensurate with the fuel needs of the event.

However, the acute use of low-fiber diets is often observed in weight division sports Reale et al. Here, the athletes suddenly reduce their fiber consumption in the days before weigh-in, in the belief or experience that a reduction in bowel contents contributes a small but potentially valuable loss of body mass, with fewer disadvantages to the dietary preparation for competition than food restriction.

Burke, personal observations. Race Feeding: Fueling and Hydration Update Some distance events offer an opportunity for athletes to consume fluid and fuel during the race to address the physiological limitations of these factors Table 2.

Table 4 Summary of Caffeine Supplementation and Performance of Distance Events Overview see Burke, ; Southward et al. CHO vs. placebo vs. HR was significantly higher in caffeine trial, with a trend to lower RPE despite the faster running speed.

Potgieter et al. No difference in RPE despite faster time. Caffeine associated with greater blood lactate and cortisol concentrations. Hanson et al. However, a greater increase in core temperature with higher caffeine dose suggests greater heat storage. Table 5 Summary of Nitrate Supplementation and Effect on Performance of Distance Events Overview for review, see Jones et al.

De Castro et al. Can a combination of osmotic agents increase fluid retention? Should be combined with external cooling strategies e. Can precooling be detrimental if athlete misjudges perception of effort in the early party of race and chooses an unsustainable intensity causing a higher thermal load than can be tolerated?

Commentary 2: Modeling the 2-hr Marathon Barrier: Is CHO a Tool? Conclusions Distance athletes should adopt nutrition strategies that address specific physiological and biochemical factors that otherwise limit performance.

Crossref Burke , L. aau Crossref Burke , L. aau aau false. x Crossref Gollnick , P. x false. PubMed ID: Leverve , X. PubMed ID: false. PubMed ID: Morgan , D. PubMed ID: Crossref Mountjoy , M. Burke Louise. burke ausport. au is corresponding author. Save Cite Email this content Share Link Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend.

xml The link was not copied. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. Related Articles. Article Sections Bioenergetic and Physiological Determinants of Success in Distance Events Support for the Periodized Training Programs of Distance Athletes Race Preparation Race Feeding: Fueling and Hydration Update Supplements for Distance Athletes Strategies for Hot Environments Commentary 1: Dietary Practices of East African Runners Commentary 2: Modeling the 2-hr Marathon Barrier: Is CHO a Tool?

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Delete Cancel Save. Cancel Save. View Expanded. View Table. View Full Size. World record: male hr:min:s. World record: female hr:min:s. Natural terrain, with undulating topography and variable surfaces.

Road—may include changes in elevation. Physiological and nutrition limitations to performance. Fatigue related to glycogen depletion, central fatigue, and some peripheral factors. Fatigue related to glycogen depletion, hypoglycemia, possible dehydration, hyperthermia depending on environmental conditions, and central fatigue, possibly muscle damage.

Fatigue related to glycogen depletion, hypoglycemia, possible dehydration, hyperthermia depending on environmental conditions, and central fatigue. Glycogen normalization.

Accentuated glycogen normalization. CHO loading, especially with a low-residue diet. Familiar prerace meal. Opportunities for in-race nutrition availability of drink stations. Nil if extremely hot, water stations may be provided on an outside lane of the track if extremely hot.

Typically, every 5 km in elite races Frequency differs in large city races. Typically, every 5 km in elite races. Frequency differs in large city marathons: may be every 2—3 km.

Every lap of 2-km loop course. Cost—benefit analysis may show that time cost of drinking may negate benefits in elite runners. Drink stations allow plentiful opportunities for frequent small intakes of CHO-containing fluid toward a race plan. Fast runners will find it difficult to drink large volumes.

Drink stations allow plentiful opportunities for frequent small intakes of CHO-containing fluids toward a race plan. Special issues for hot weather events.