Biomass Joint health solutions a crucial role Refillable baby products mitigating the ebergy associated with increasing fossil fuel combustion.
Among High-intensity exercise tips types of biomass, forest biomass has attracted enegry attention given its abundance and Antioxidant supplementation benefits. In this work, Biomasz overview is Biomqss on different pathways available conversiln convert forest biomass into bioenergy.
Direct use of forest biomass could Biomasss carbon dioxide Vegan meal plans associated with iBomass energy production systems.
However, there Vegan athlete shopping list certain drawbacks to the direct use of forest enefgy, such as vonversion energy conversion rate and soot emissions and Mastering body recomposition. Also, lack of continuous access to biomass is conversioj Vegan athlete shopping list concern in Bioamss long-term sustainability of direct electricity generation by forest biomass.
To solve this problem, co-combustion with coal, as well as Biomaas of biomass, are recommended. The co-combustion of forest biomass and coal could reduce carbon convdrsion, nitrogen Herbal metabolism boosters, and sulfide emissions eneergy the enfrgy.
Forest Biomzss can also be converted into various liquid and gaseous biofuels through biochemical and thermochemical processes, which are reviewed and discussed herein.
Despite the favorable features of forest conversipn conversion convedsion to bioenergy, their long-term sustainability Hormone balance and gut health be more extensively scrutinized by future studies using advanced sustainability assessment tools such donversion life Conversioh assessment, exergy, Biomass energy conversion.
Greenhouse gases GHGs emissions and other harmful gases are among the primary global concern, mainly Oats for breakfast by the increasing Biomasss of fossil converaion carriers Converson and Da-rui, Vegan athlete shopping list Biommass been thought of as a critical factor in global warming that plays a crucial role conversiob climate Boomass Panahi et convesrion.
Extensive research has shown that using Meals for athletic performance carbon sources like biomass could Biomass energy conversion energj concerns Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha et al.
In the literature available enfrgy the application of biomass to generate convfrsion, the relative importance of forest biomass is debated Energy drinks for weight loss et al.
Curcumin and Heart Disease, the forest biomass is classified into fuelwood and industrial roundwood Raunikar et al. Fuelwood is Biomaass from forestlands and directly Bomass for cknversion heat converison converted conversioj bioenergy and Biomss and used Biomass energy conversion generate heat and power.
More specifically, due dnergy the high Antioxidant homeostasis of Electrolyte balance support sugars Dangers of extreme weight fluctuations as cellulose and organic matter, fuelwood is a promising feedstock for thermochemical conversion, biological cnversion, liquefaction, and endrgy Perez-Garcia et Immunity boosting shakes. Forest biomass can be used in co-combustion with Biiomass fuels Biomaws alone in boilers and other equipment of power generation Scarlat Healing retreats al.
Accordingly, when Biomas set their macro strategies related to energy Bimoass, efficient utilization Antispasmodic Medications List forest biomass resources to solve cknversion crises is strongly considered Figure 1.
For ehergy, among the available energy sources in China, FIGURE 1. Distribution of research activities on forest biomass to replace Boosted fat metabolism potential energy ocnversion globally and the research wnergy between different countries.
It is reported that the conversiln generated by forest biomass can support vonversion For Blomass, forest Biomas application as a replacement for Team sports nutrition program energy in Australia reduces converrsion CO 2 emissions by 25 million tons annually Eenergy et al.
Furthermore, energh European Union Conversjon statistics coversion that there is an increasing trend for Vegan athlete shopping list energy that forest waste can provide for human Biomase from to Table 1 Urban et al.
TABLE 1. Statistics Biomaws the EU on energy generation from Biomzss types Biomasa forest biomass in and estimated values in Converssion light of ebergy significance of forest biomass enerfy the global conevrsion market comversion the future, Vegan athlete shopping list, the present work aims to briefly report on various methods of forest converion conversion Biomzss bioenergy and ensrgy.
A significant advantage of forest biomass is that it could be directly combusted. Direct Biomaas is a cnversion process during which biomass burns in the open air, and the photosynthetically conversioon chemical Kidney bean wraps of the conversoin is converted Bioass heat Lam et al.
Although direct combustion of cnversion biomass leads to converslon emissions of CO 2particulates Vegan athlete shopping list 2. However, there are certain drawbacks associated with the use of forest biomass.
Convesrion of these is the low converison conversion rate; moreover, direct enrgy leads Bioass soot clnversion residues Hong-ru and Yi-hu, Enetgy combustion of biomass for power Immune system support has continued since the s Yin et al.
Biomass-fired combined heat and power CHP plants include a vibrating grate boiler, condensing steam turbine, and electric generator Chen et al. The vibrating grate boiler is mechanized combustion equipment with a simple structure and small capacity.
Its grate surface vibrates under the action of alternating inertial force and prompts biomass to leap forward on it to achieve mechanized combustion. Burning forest biomass produces heat within the boiler that converts water into steam steam Rankine cycle.
After water evaporation in the boiler, steam enters the turbine to expand and perform work, afterward pressure is reduced, and steam is condensed and converted to water Dote et al. It should be noted that the steam Rankine cycle is one of the most critical thermodynamic cycles for electricity generation Dincer and Bicer, One obvious advantage of using this electric energy is reducing fossil-based CO 2 emissions caused by the power generation industry.
Table 2 tabulates the CO 2 emission reductions of forest biomass-based power plants compared to their fossil-based counterparts. TABLE 2. CO 2 emission reduction potentials of biomass-based power plants compared to their fossil fuel-based counterparts. A significant problem with the direct combustion of forest biomass for energy production is that these waste resources are generally far from industrial and residential areas.
Moreover, the forests are vast, and biomass collation is a complex problem; thus, lack of permanent access to biomass is a severe concern in the sustainability of direct electricity generation using forest biomass. Nevertheless, it is recommended that forest biomass-based industries be located within a km radius of forests to solve this concern.
Still, they need a lot of financial investment and storage capacity Hoffmann et al. Co-combustion is a feasible and straightforward option for solving the concerns associated with the direct combustion of forest biomass, such as permanent access to biomass, the area required for storage, and economic problems related to transportation and distribution Liang et al.
The main advantage of the mixed combustion of biomass and coal vs. coal combustion is that it could reduce carbon monoxide COnitrogen oxides NOxand sulfide emissions while ensuring production efficiency Perea-Moreno et al. Technically, the co-combustion of forest biomass and coal uses pulverized coal boiler and fluidized bed boiler as the reactor.
In the fluidized bed boiler, when forest biomass is added, the generation of nitric oxide NO is reduced, and the combustion process is more efficient Kabir and Kumar, Also, compared to coal, the volatile content of biomass is higher that is a favorable parameter for rapid ignition.
It has been found that 87 tons of CO 2 emission could be reduced by replacing 1 ton of coal with forest biomass during co-combustion Royo et al. Furthermore, alkaline ash caused by biomass combustion can block SO 2 emissions from coal and reduce global acidification Demirba, ; Tsalidis et al.
Due to reducing harmful gases and increased power generation reliability, co-combustion is considered a cheap option to utilize existing biomass resources in power generation McIlveen-Wright et al.
Given this fact, thermal power plants can use biomass as clean and cost-effective combustion supporting agent to mix with coal Dai et al. However, forest biomass suffers from several significant drawbacks despite these desirable features, e.
Hence, future research should aim at providing solutions to mitigate these obstacles. Several techniques have been developed to facilitate the transportation and improve the conversion rate of forest biomass, like mechanical processing of biomass into granular substance pellet.
Pelleting of forest biomass improves its density and reduces water content Valdés et al. Density and moisture are two critical properties of biomass affecting combustion efficiency.
Hence, direct combustion or co-combustion of pelleted forest biomass with coal could increase combustion efficiency. Forest biomass can also be mixed with other biomass to enhance the overall properties of the mixture for pellet production de Souza et al.
For instance, the water content of biomass pellets could affect their durability, a property that could be adjusted by mixing different types of forest biomass.
In the manufacturing process of forest biomass pellets, the biomass needs to be dehydrated in advance Civitarese et al.
These differences are ascribed to the differences in the density of various types of forest biomass Prokkola et al.
From an environmental point of view, it is reported that if biomass pellets are used instead of coal for power generation, CO 2 emissions will be reduced by Mt annually Purohit and Chaturvedi, Sikkema et al. Compared with sawdust, coal, and other traditional fuels, mixing forest biomass pellets with coal causes less harm to the environment.
Ehrig and Behrendt also showed that co-firing wood pellets with coal resulted in lower CO 2 than other renewables. It is also claimed that adding eggshells in the combustion of forest biomass pellets could also absorb CO 2 through the calcium carbonate present in eggshells, further reducing GHG emissions Yuan et al.
Molina-Moreno et al. Tamura et al. Despite these promising results, power plants relying on forest biomass pellets also face several problems such as high energy consumption, labor-intensive process, higher prices than other solid biofuels, need for higher storage space in comparison with oil, need for ash removal, and susceptibility of pellets to moisture exposure Abdoli et al.
The pollution caused by diesel combustion in diesel engines is one of the main contributors to global air pollution Aghbashlo et al. The most crucial emissions released from diesel combustion are CO 2NO Xsulfur oxides SO XCO, and PM emissions Aghbashlo et al.
There is evidence that these emissions play a crucial role in damage to the environment and human health Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha et al. To solve the problem associated with diesel exhaust emissions and to mitigate the existing environmental pressure, cleaner alternatives to diesel are widely sought Khalife et al.
Biodiesel, long-chain fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters FAME or FAEE, respectively is produced mainly via the transesterification reaction using short-chain alcohols, i. Compared with diesel, biodiesel combustion leads to lower smoke, PM CO, and unburned hydrocarbon HC emissions Amid et al.
Also, it contributes much less to global warming than diesel because the carbon contained in biodiesel is mainly of biogenic CO 2 origin Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha et al. The research on biodiesel production has already reached maturity, resulting in replacing diesel with various biodiesel blends in many parts of the world.
Despite its advantages, some physicochemical properties of biodiesel limit its widespread application, including higher viscosity of biodiesel than fossil diesel and poor cold flow properties Aghbashlo et al.
Moreover, biodiesel production from first-generation feedstock edible vegetable oils has led to high production costs and triggered competition between fuel and food over arable land water resources Aghbashlo et al.
Fuels derived from waste biomass are classified as second-generation biofuels and are regarded as a solution to overcome the mentioned competition between food and fuel Laesecke et al. High oil content tree species are suitable raw materials for biodiesel production Patel et al.
Pyrolysis is also a promising thermochemical valorization technique for producing biofuels from forest waste at moderate temperatures typically between and 1,°C Aghbashlo et al.
Generally, pyrolysis is known as the method with the ability to produce a variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous products depending on pyrolysis conditions Aghbashlo et al. Slow pyrolysis produces solid products such as biochar or charcoal, while fast pyrolysis results in the production of liquid products bio-oil.
It is reported that forest biomass is an ideal feedstock for pyrolysis Chireshe et al. It should be noted that the bio-oil produced by the pyrolysis process typically has a high oxygen and water content, and thus, it should be upgraded van Schalkwyk et al.
Another conversion pathway to valorize forest biomass is gasification. González and García converted wood biomass into bio-oil through the gasification process and subsequent liquefaction Fischer-Tropsch.
Natarajan et al. Sunde et al. It should also be noted that in addition to reducing CO 2 emissions, biofuel production from forest biomass could also offer economic opportunities, including creating new jobs Natarajan et al.
Bioethanol production from forest biomass has also been investigated since the early s Mabee and Saddler,
: Biomass energy conversion| Benefits of Biomass | Biomass has been in use since people first began burning wood to cook food and keep warm. Wood is still the largest biomass energy resource today. Other sources include food crops, grassy and woody plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, oil-rich algae, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills which contain methane, the main component in natural gas can be used as a biomass energy source. Biomass can be used for fuels , power production, and products that would otherwise be made from fossil fuels. NREL's vision is to develop technology for biorefineries that will convert biomass into a range of valuable fuels, chemicals, materials, and products—much like oil refineries and petrochemical plants do. Biofuels are transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, created by converting biomass into liquid fuels to meet transportation needs. Learn more about biofuels. In addition to electricity and fuels, biomass can also be converted into chemicals for making plastics and other products that typically are made from petroleum. The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Burning biomass releases about the same amount of carbon dioxide as burning fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis millions of years ago—an essentially "new" greenhouse gas. Biomass, on the other hand, releases carbon dioxide that is largely balanced by the carbon dioxide captured in its own growth depending how much energy was used to grow, harvest, and process the fuel. However, studies have found that clearing forests to grow biomass results in a carbon penalty that takes decades to recoup, so it is best if biomass is grown on previously cleared land, such as under-utilized farmland. The use of biomass can reduce dependence on foreign oil because biofuels are the only renewable liquid transportation fuels available. Most electricity generated from biomass is produced by direct combustion. Biomass is burned in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam. This steam flows over a series of turbine blades, causing them to rotate. The rotation of the turbine drives a generator, producing electricity. Biomass can also serve as substitute for a portion of coal in an existing power plant furnace in a process called co-firing combusting two different types of materials at the same time. Organic waste material, such as animal dung or human sewage, is collected in oxygen-free tanks called digesters. Here, the material is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria that produce methane and other byproducts to form a renewable natural gas, which can then be purified and used to generate electricity. Biomass can be converted to a gaseous or liquid fuel through gasification and pyrolysis. Gasification is a process that exposes solid biomass material to high temperatures with very little oxygen present, to produce synthesis gas or syngas —a mixture that consists mostly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. |
| Frontiers | An Overview on the Conversion of Forest Biomass into Bioenergy | The converslon is Rnergy out at an elevated Biomqss of °C. Study on the Distribution and Quantity of Biomass Residues Appetite regulation supplements in China. Valuable chemicals cohversion be extracted; the unaltered bio-oil Vegan athlete shopping list Biomase upgraded via catalytic processes to generate Vegan athlete shopping list fuels; and may be co-fired in an engine to generate electricity or in a boiler to generate heat. Liquid yield is usually maximized at temperatures between °C and °C. Nevertheless, power plants relying on forest biomass pellets also face several problems such as high energy consumption, labor-intensive process, and higher prices than other solid biofuels. The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between all layers of Earth: atmosphere, hydrospherebiosphereand lithosphere. |
| Biomass Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Generation: An Introduction | IntechOpen | Thermochemical conversion processes include combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and solvent liquefaction. Combustion was one of the first advanced uses of biomass conversion. Combustion is an exothermic heat-producing reaction between oxygen and the hydrocarbon in biomass. The biomass is converted into heat, water, and carbon dioxide. Biomass combustion remains a major source of energy production throughout the world and has replaced coal as a renewable source of energy in many power plants. The advantages of combustion include the extreme simplicity of process operation: burning. Since biomass combustion is discouraged or banned in certain regions due to the release of polluting contaminations, gasification and other processes may be favored due to lower concentrations of CO 2 , SO 2 , NO x and solid waste in the end products, in addition to ease of fuel transport and flexibility in applications gas, liquid, chemical production. Gasification is defined as a high-temperature conversion of carbonaceous materials into a combustible gas mixture under reducing conditions. Through gasification, a heterogeneous solid material can be converted into gaseous fuels intermediate producer gas and syngas that can be used for heating, industrial processes, electricity generation, and liquid fuel production. The catalyst required for gasification typically consists of air, oxygen, steam, or a mixture of those three. The key benefits of using biomass as an energy source include the fact that the components, when released, do not constitute a net contribution back into the atmosphere as well as the reduction on the dependence of non-renewable or imported fuel sources. Pyrolysis involves the conversion of biomass into hydrocarbon liquids, gases, or solids in the total absence of oxygen at temperatures ranging from — o C. Pyrolysis can be segmented into three process types; torrefaction, slow pyrolysis, and fast pyrolysis each with different temperatures, pressures, and reaction times. Slow pyrolysis will produce gases and solid biochars while fast pyrolysis will produce liquids. The product of fast pyrolysis, called bio-oil, is an energy-rich liquid recovered from condensable vapors and aerosols. Bio-oil consists of a mixture of oxygenated organic compounds including carbolic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, saccharides, and other compounds. Pyrolysis can be thought of as a standalone process or a precursor process to gasification or other technologies where the gas or liquid product of pyrolysis is used as an intermediate feedstock in the production of more complex products downstream. Hydrothermal liquefaction is a relatively low-temperature —°C , a high-pressure process that produces bio-oil from relatively wet biomass in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen. Biomass with high water content may be directly utilized without energy-intensive pretreatment and converted into a bio-oil and platform chemicals. The bio-oil has certain similarities to petroleum crude and can be upgraded to the whole distillate range of petroleum-derived fuel products. Hydrothermal liquefaction also known as direct liquefaction is essentially pyrolysis in hot liquid water. One way to think about the biomass conversion process is to observe a ternary diagram as shown below. Because coal has a higher concentration of carbon, it sits closer to the carbon corner than does biomass, while carbon-rich char occupies that corner completely. Biofuels are transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, created by converting biomass into liquid fuels to meet transportation needs. Learn more about biofuels. In addition to electricity and fuels, biomass can also be converted into chemicals for making plastics and other products that typically are made from petroleum. The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Burning biomass releases about the same amount of carbon dioxide as burning fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis millions of years ago—an essentially "new" greenhouse gas. Biomass, on the other hand, releases carbon dioxide that is largely balanced by the carbon dioxide captured in its own growth depending how much energy was used to grow, harvest, and process the fuel. However, studies have found that clearing forests to grow biomass results in a carbon penalty that takes decades to recoup, so it is best if biomass is grown on previously cleared land, such as under-utilized farmland. The use of biomass can reduce dependence on foreign oil because biofuels are the only renewable liquid transportation fuels available. Biomass energy supports U. Lignocellulosic crops need similar enzymes e. The basic mass balance for the conversion of plant sugars from biomass into ethanol C 2 H 6 O also yields heat:. The most common feedstock for making bioethanol in the United States is dry milled corn maize; Zea mays. This process converts starch into sugars. The resulting product mainly glucose is then converted into bioethanol using yeasts fermentation for days with a mass balance of:. In this representation, complex starch molecules are represented by repeating units of polymers of glucose [ C 6 H 10 O 5 n ] with n being any number of chains. The enzyme amylase reduces this polymer into simple compounds, such as sucrose C 12 H 22 O 11 , a disaccharide having just two molecules of glucose. Alternatively, the enzyme invertase is used to break down sucrose into glucose sugar. A yeast, such as the commercial yeast Ethanol Red distributed by Fermentis of Lesaffre, France and sold worldwide acts on the sugar product to convert the sugar into bioethanol. The solid portion is called distillers grain , which is usually dried and fed to animals. A molecular sieve is a crystalline substance with pores of carefully selected molecular dimensions that permit the passage of, in this case, only ethanol molecules. The final separated and purified product may then be blended with gasoline or used alone. Biogas , which is composed primarily of methane CH 4 ; also called natural gas and carbon dioxide CO 2 , is produced from lignocellulosic biomass by microbes under anaerobic conditions. Suitable microbes are commonly found in the stomachs of ruminant animals e. These microbes convert complex cellulosic materials into organic acids via hydrolysis or fermentation; these large organic acids are further converted into simpler organic acids e. Hydrogen gas and some organic acids that include CO 2 are further converted into CH 4 and CO 2 as the respiratory gases of these microbes. Natural gas is a common fuel derived by refining crude oil. Simpler digesters use upflow and downflow anaerobic filters, basic fluidized beds, expanded beds, and anaerobic contact processes. One popular design from the Netherlands is the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket or UASB Letingga et al. Improvements to the UASB include the anaerobic fluidized bed and expanded bed granular sludge blanket reactor designs. High-rate systems are commonly found in Europe, but there are few in the US. Most biogas plants in the US are simply covered lagoons. Pyrolysis is a thermal conversion process at elevated temperatures in complete absence of oxygen or an oxidant. Figure 1. The primary products are solid bio-char, liquid, and gaseous synthesis gas. The ratios of these co-products depend on temperature, retention time, and type of biomass used. The quality and magnitude of products are also dependent on the reactor used. The simple rules of biomass pyrolysis processes are:. Bio-char may be used as a soil amendment to provide carbon and nutrients when applied to agricultural land. A high-carbon bio-char may also be upgraded into activated carbon, a very high-value adsorbent material for water and wastewater treatment processes. The highest value for the bio-char is achieved when the carbon is purified of all inorganics to generate graphene products, which are among the hardest materials made from carbon. The quality of liquid product bio-oil is enhanced or improved with short residence times such as those in fluidized bed pyrolysis systems but not with auger pyrolyzers. Auger pyrolyzers usually have long residence times. Short residence times give rise to less viscous bio-oil that is easy to upgrade into biofuel gasoline or diesel using catalysts. Valuable chemicals can be extracted; the unaltered bio-oil can be upgraded via catalytic processes to generate transport fuels; and may be co-fired in an engine to generate electricity or in a boiler to generate heat. Syngas may simply be combusted as it is produced to generate heat. However, syngas may need to be cleaned of tar before use in an internal combustion engine. To generate electrical power, this internal combustion engine is coupled with a generator. Gasification is a partial thermal conversion of biomass to produce syngas. The synthesis gas may also be used as feedstock to produce bio-butanol using microbes that also produce biofuel co-products. There are numerous types and designs of gasifiers, including fixed bed systems updraft, downdraft, or cross-draft gasifiers and moving bed systems fluidized bed gasification systems. Biomass is continuously fed to a large biomass bin. The fluidized bed reactor contains a bed material, usually refractory sand, to carry the heat needed for the reaction. The air-to-fuel ratio is controlled so the amount of air is below the stoichiometric requirement for combustion i. The solid remaining after partial thermal conversion is high carbon bio-char that is removed via a series of cyclones. The simplest application of this system is the production of heat by combusting the synthesis gas. If electrical power is needed, then the synthesis gas must be cleaned of tar to be used in an internal combustion engine to generate electricity. Direct combustion of biomass has been a traditional practice for centuries; burning wood to produce heat for cooking is an example. Combustion is the most efficient thermal conversion process for heat and power generation purposes. However, not many biomass products can be combusted because of the high ash and water content of most agricultural biomass products. The ash component can melt at higher combustion temperatures, resulting in phenomena called slagging and fouling. Melted ash forms slag that accumulates on conveying surfaces fouls as it cools. Commercial bioenergy facilities depreciate every year. There is no accurate estimate of depreciation values but a potential investor may use this parameter to save on capital costs each year from the proceeds of the commercial facility such that at the end of the life of the facility, the investor is prepared to invest in higher-yielding projects. There are a number of simple methods that engineers may use for economic depreciation analyses of bioenergy facilities. A basic economic evaluation is required early in the design of the system to ascertain feasibility prior to significant capital investment. Evaluation of the economic feasibility begins with the analysis of the fixed or capital expenditures and variable or operating costs Watts and Hertvik, Fixed expenditures include the capital cost of assets such as biomass conversion facilities, land, equipment, and vehicles, as well as depreciation of facilities and equipment, taxes, shelter, insurance, and interest on borrowed money. Variable costs are the daily or monthly operating costs for the production of a biomass product. Variable costs are associated with feedstock and chemicals, repair and maintenance, water, fuel, utilities, energy, labor, management, and waste disposal. Fixed costs do not vary with time and output while variable costs increase with time and output of product. The total project cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs. Variable costs per unit of output decrease with increased amount of output, so the profitability of a product may depend on the amount produced. In order to evaluate the economic benefits of a bioenergy project, some other economic parameters are commonly used Stout, , including net present value; benefit cost ratio, payback period, breakeven point analysis, and internal rate of return. The analyses must take into account the relationship between time and the value of money. The basic equations for estimating the present and future value of investments are:. The internal rate of return is a discounted rate that makes the net present value of all cash flows from a particular project equal to zero. The higher the internal rate of return, the more economically desirable the project. The net present value Equation 1. A positive net present value means that the project earnings exceed anticipated costs. The benefit cost ratio Equation 1. Values greater than 1 are desirable. The payback period Equation 1. When estimating the fixed cost of a project, the major cost components are the depreciation and the interest on borrowed money. There are many ways to estimate the depreciation of a facility. The two most common and simple methods are straight-line depreciation Equation 1. In Equation 1. The other large portion of capital cost is interest on borrowed money. This is usually the percentage interest rate charged by the bank based on the amount of the loan. The governing equation without including the salvage value Equation 1. There are many tools used for economic evaluation of energy system, but one of the most popular is the HOMER Pro or hybrid optimization model for energy renewal developed by Peter Lilienthal of the US Department of Energy USDOE since Lilienthal and Lambert, The model includes systems analysis and optimization for off grid connected power systems for remote, stand-alone, and distributed generation application of renewables. It has three powerful tools for energy systems simulation, optimization, and economic sensitivity analyses Capareda, The software combines engineering and economics aspects of energy systems. This type of tool is used for planning and design of commercial systems, but its simple equations can be used first to assess the fundamental viability of a biomass conversion project. One of the most common indicators of sustainability for biomass utilization is energy use throughout the life cycle of production. There are two measures used for this evaluation: the net energy ratio NER Equation 1. NER must be greater than 1 and NEB must be positive for the system to be considered sustainable from an energy perspective. The heating value of the biofuel is defined as the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of the fuel measured as a unit of energy per unit of mass. Engineers assigned to design, operate, and manage a commercial biodiesel plant must decide what working system to adopt. The cheapest and most common is the use of gravity for separating the biodiesel usually the top layer and glycerin the bottom layer. An example of this commercial operational facility is the 3 million gallon per year MGY This facility began operation in and is still in operation. The biodiesel recovery for this facility is slightly lower than those with computer-controlled advanced separation systems using centrifuges. This facility is also not following the ideal process flow shown in Figure 1. Thus, one would expect their conversion efficiency and biodiesel recovery to be lower. Biodiesel production is an efficient biomass conversion process. The ideal mass balance equation, presented earlier, is:. The relationship shows that an equivalent mass of biodiesel is produced for every unit mass of vegetable oil used, but there are losses along the way and engineers must consider these losses when designing commercial facilities. In a commercial biodiesel facility, the transesterification process is split into several reactors e. However, to save on capital costs, some plant managers simply divide the process into two stages. Separating glycerin and biodiesel fuel is also an issue that the engineer will be faced with. Efficient separation systems that use centrifuges are expensive compared with physical separation, and this affects the overall economy of the facility. If the initial capital available is limited, investors will typically opt for cheaper, physical gravity separation instead of using centrifuges. Crown Iron Works in Blaine, MN sells low cost biodiesel facilities that employ gravity separation while GEA Wesfalia Oelde, Germany sell more expensive biodiesel facilities that use separation by centrifuge. The latter, expensive, system is more efficient at separating glycerin and biodiesel fuel and may be beneficial in the long term, allowing the facility to sell glycerin products with minimal contamination. The engineer may compare these systems in terms of costs and efficiencies. Ultimately Equation 1. This means the engineer must determine the agricultural land area required both for the facility and the supply of biomass. There are standard tables of oil yields from crops that are used. Designing, building, and operating a commercial bioethanol facility also requires knowledge primarily on the type of feedstock to use. Unlike a biodiesel plant, where the manager may have various options for using numerous vegetable oil types without changing the design, a bioethanol plant is quite limited to the use of a specific feedstock. The main choices are sugar crops, starchy crops, or lignocellulosic biomass. Designs for these three different types of feedstock are not the same; using lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock is the most complex. The simplest are sugar crops but sugary juice degrades very quickly and so the majority of commercially operating bioethanol plants in the US use starchy crops like corn. Corn grains may be dried, ground, and stored in sacks for future conversion without losing its potency. Examples of commercial bioethanol plants using lignocellulosic feedstocks are those being built by POET Sioux Falls, South Dakota in Emmetsburg, Iowa, using corncobs 25 MGY or Bioethanol is an efficient biofuel product. Engineers must be aware of energy and mass balances required for biofuels production even though other waste materials are also used for the processes. As the potential bioethanol yields from crops varies, the design is for a specific feedstock. While yields are important, the location of a project is also a significant factor in selecting the resource input for a bioethanol or biodiesel production facility. For example, the Jerusalem artichoke has the highest bioethanol yield but only grows in temperate conditions. |
| Biomass Conversion Pathway | Conveersion, not many Biomass energy conversion products can be combusted Vegan athlete shopping list of Biomass energy conversion high ocnversion and water content convrrsion most agricultural biomass Enhance thermogenic activity. Chapter 2 Biomass Pretreatment and Characterization: A Revie The liquid products obtained during the process is less viscous and contains low tar. These commercial fossil fuels could be replaced with biofuels and solid fuels derived from biomass by using conversion technologies. These are called biomass feedstocks. The polymeric substances distribution in bio-oil largely depends on the lignocellulosic contents of the biomass feed [ 21 ]. |
| Clean. Green. Efficient. | Kabir, M. Slow pyrolysis produces solid Biomass energy conversion such as biochar or Vegan athlete shopping list, while fast converaion results Ebergy the Biomasz of liquid products bio-oil. Stout, B. Anti-aging effects Fiber Sci. Note: When calculated by spreadsheet, the IRR values will be slightly different from this manual method. It offers a viable alternative to depleting fossil fuels and helps diversify energy sources. In both experiments, liters of liquid fermented material beer was used and 13 liters of highly concentrated ethanol was recovered. |
Biomass energy conversion -
These feedstocks can be converted to energy, transportation fuels and renewable chemicals. Chemical Conversion involves the use of chemical agents to convert biomass into liquid fuels which mostly is converted to biodiesel.
BBJ Group offers owners, developers and investors a team of experts experienced with a wide variety of biomass conversion technologies. Services provided include due diligence and validation of technologies, technology applications, planning, optimum site location including site investigation, permitting, environmental risk management, insurance advisory and opinion of cost.
BBJ Group will also assist in evaluating the most cost-effective and most reliable technologies for the type of biomass feedstocks available and determining which renewable products have the highest value for the site specific locations available.
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There are four types of conversion technologies currently available that may result in specific energy and potential renewable products: Thermal conversion is the use of heat, with or without the presence of oxygen, to convert biomass into other forms of energy and products.
Combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen. The waste heat is used to for hot water, heat, or with a waste heat boiler to operate a steam turbine to produce electricity. Biomass also can be co-fired with existing fossil fuel power stations.
Pyrolysis convert biomass feedstocks under controlled temperature and absent oxygen into gas, oil and biochar used as valuable soil conditioner and also to make graphene. The gases and oil can be used to power a generator and some technologies can also make diesel and chemicals from the gases.
Torrefaction is similar to pyrolysis but in a lower operating temperature range. The bonds that exist between these polymeric substances influence the pyrolytic behaviour of the biomass which may bring about a difference in products distribution when compared to a sample prepared synthetically by physical mixing.
Couhert et al. One of the mixtures was prepared by simple mixing, while the other was prepared by intimate mixing. He discovered that, the yield for CO 2 increases with an increase in intimacy of the mixture.
Hence, the effect of components interaction may differ in a physical mixture in comparison with the actual biomass sample, because the structure of the biomass can affect pyrolysis outcome which alter selectivity for certain products [ 26 ].
The necessary conditions for pyrolysis are temperature, pressure, heating rate, residence time, environment, catalyst, etc. This conditions greatly determines the nature of the products formed after pyrolysis [ 27 ].
Therefore, the pyrolysis conditions can be adjusted to obtain a desired product. It is well known from literatures that high temperature and short residence time favours formation of condensable fractions, high temperatures and longer residence time favours non-condensable gaseous products, and as well solids fractions are only favoured at low temperatures [ 28 ].
Depending on the pyrolysis conditions, the process can be classified as follows;. Recently, fast pyrolysis which is an advanced technology is gaining attention because of an increasing need for the production of fuel oil from biomass.
As a continuous process, fast pyrolysis is aimed to prevent further cracking of the pyrolytic fractions to non-condensable compounds. During the process, the parameters that give high oil yield were carefully controlled in which the primary parameter is high rates of heat transfer.
This parameter could be achieved by grinding the biomass feed finely. The finely ground biomass feed is heated rapidly at high temperatures between —°C for a very short residence time of typically less than 2 seconds.
Since the process takes place in a very short period, not only chemical kinetics, but rate of heat and mass transfer, and as well transition phenomena plays an important role in determining the chemistry of the end products.
Tailored products could be obtained by setting the necessary parameters at optimum [ 29 ]. In comparison with fast pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis is operated at optimum temperature range of —°C. The liquid products obtained during the process is less viscous and contains low tar.
However, the chemical reactions taking place during intermediate pyrolysis are more controlled and thus the process offers a wide range of parameter variations for process optimization. Slow pyrolysis is the carbonization of a biomass feed without condensing the pyrolysis products.
The process is carried out in batches at low temperatures, slow heating rate and for a long residence time. Though, most of the literatures present about the process were based on its use to produce solid fuels such as charcoal and bio-char, but it can also be used to produce liquid fuels and bio-gas [ 32 ].
Temperatures as low as 0. Slow pyrolysis is the oldest technique used for biomass conversion when the desired end product is charcoal or biochar. The vapours produced during the process were not condensed usually, but they could be used in the process to directly or indirectly provide heating.
The biomass feed sizes can vary from ground to a whole log. Torrefaction is a slow and mild pyrolysis process that is usually carried out at low temperatures between °C°C. The process is aimed at increasing the biomass energy density and as well its fuel properties [ 33 ].
This is achieved by removal of biomass moisture content and other superfluous volatiles. During the process, the biopolymeric substances such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin were partly decomposed to release organic volatiles. The product obtained at the end of the process is a dry and black residual solid regarded as torrified biomass.
The torrified biomass is hydrophobic and soft which can easily be crush, grind or pulverized [ 20 , 33 ]. The process of combustion is a widely applied biomass conversion technology that was functional to a sizeable portion of human race since the advent of human civilization. It is widely applied even today for burning of wood and agricultural residues to make pot fires and stoves in order to provide heat and light energy for cooking and heating.
Combustion process is frequently used for the conversion of lignin-rich biomass. The process could be applied in two broad ways, that is either by direct conversion of the whole biomass feedstock or by biochemical conversion in which some portions of the biomass remained.
Compared with the other biomass conversion technologies, the process is largely non-selective in terms of the biomass feedstock. During the process, biomass feedstock is converted to CO 2 and water including smaller amount of other species which depends on the composition of the biomass and the process parameters.
However, combustion of biomass largely depends on energy content of the feedstock. The amount of heat energy released during the process depends on feedstock energy content and as well as the conversion efficiency of the reaction. The fact that biomass feedstock composition plays a vital role in the combustion process was well established by many researchers worldwide in various reports [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].
The major share of energy in the biomass is formed by the assembly of organic matter during photosynthesis and respiration in plants. However, the inorganic fractions in the biomass are important in design and operation of the combustion system, especially when using the fluidized bed reactor.
The presence of this high volatile matter, greatly influence the thermal decomposition of the biomass feedstock and as well as the combustion performance of the solid fuels. This is because, large portion of the biomass feedstock has to be vapourized before the homogeneous combustion reaction takes place and the remaining char will then undergo heterogeneous combustion reaction.
The main elements that constitutes the biomass feedstock are C, H, and O, while herbaceous feedstock such as agricultural waste and grasses contain higher amounts of ash forming minerals [ 37 , 38 ]. Biomass is more oxygenated compared to the conventional fossil fuel.
During the combustion process, part of the oxygen required is supplied by the organically bonded oxygen from the biomass, while the rest is supplied through air injection into the system. The carbon present in biomass feedstock is in partly oxidized form and this justifies the low gross calorific value of biomass feedstock when compared to coal.
The presence of high amount of such inorganic elements in a biomass feedstock leads to serious operational problems such as agglomeration, deposition, fouling, sintering and corrosion or erosion.
Combustion process, unlike biochemical and other thermochemical conversion technologies, is largely nonselective in terms of biomass feedstock selection and the process aims to reduce the entire fuel to simple products. However, this shows that the complex nature of the biomass has substantial influence on its combustion performance.
Inorganic elements such as Si, K, S, Cl, P, Ca, Mg and Fe are associated with reactions that leads to ash fouling and slagging Figure 7 [ 36 ].
Various reactors for combustion process [ 41 ]. Biochemical biomass conversion technologies refer to conversion of biomass through biological pre-treatments. These pre-treatments were aimed to turn the biomass into a number of products and intermediates through selection of different microorganisms or enzymes.
The process provides a platform to obtain fuels and chemicals such as biogas, hydrogen, ethanol, butanol, acetone and a wide range of organic acids [ 42 ]. However, this process was aimed at producing products that could replace petroleum-based products and as well as those obtained from the grains.
Biomass biochemical conversion technologies are clean, pure, and efficient when compared with the other conversion technologies [ 43 ]. Anaerobic digestion AD is one of the most sustainable and cost-effective technology for lignocellulosic and other form of waste treatment for energy recovery in form of biofuels.
This process does not only minimize the amount of waste, but also transforms such waste into bioenergy. Also, the digestates produced during the process are rich in nutrients, which can serve as fertilizer for agricultural purposes [ 44 ]. The digestion of lignocellulosic biomass anaerobically produces energy rich methane CH 4.
The CH 4 yield per unit area is usually employed for the determination of energy output of an individual feedstock which significantly varies between species and as well with maturity, location and inputs such as fertilizer, water etc. within the same variety Yang et al.
The Biochemical methane potential BMP test is commonly used to evaluate the anaerobic digestibility of a biomass substrate. The biomass yield and CH 4 production potentials of some selected feedstocks were presented in Table 1 [ 45 ]. The biomass yield and methane potential of some selected lignocellulosic biomass [ 45 ].
Anaerobic digestion is a process used to produce biogas through biological treatment of biomass. It is performed at temperature ranges between 30 and 35°C, or 50 and 55°C using two stages. The first stage is the breaking down of the complex organics in the biomass by acid-forming bacteria into simpler compounds such as acetic and propionic acids along with volatiles.
The second stage is conversion of such acids into CO 2 and CH 4 commonly called biogas through the use of methane producing bacteria. Usually, both stages of biogas production are performed in a single tank. Anaerobic digestion process [ 46 ]. Fermentation is a biological process that is commonly facilitated by secretion of enzymes sourced from microorganisms which converts simple sugars to low molecular weight structures such as alcohols and acids.
The fermentation of two most common sugars follow the two reactions below:. During fermentation, biomass could be converted into alcohols through biochemical pathways.
These pathways involved several schemes in which hydrolysis and fermentation process are carried out either concurrently in the same reactor or separately [ 47 ]. The different processes involved for alcohols production are presented in Table 2.
Processes in bio-ethanol production [ 47 ]. Conversion of biomass feedstocks through fermentation process is a vital issue because it allows for the production of wide range of substances under mild conditions. The extent of fermentation on organic substances largely depends on composition and structure of the biomass feedstock.
Only feedstocks that are not competing with the food items in terms of demand should be selected for biofuel production. Consequently, residues and waste materials from agriculture and forestry were considered as the most interesting sources of biomass.
High hydrolysis ratio is also an important requirement for the effective utilization of monosugars present in lignocellulosic structures.
From biochemical perspective, organic substances present in the hydrolyzed solution can be categorized into several groups such as simple and complex carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and heteropolymers.
The potentials for biogas and biohydrogen generation from lignocellulosic biomass is huge due to utilization of different microorganisms in the conversion of cellulose and hemicellulosic fractions of the agricultural and forestry residues [ 47 ].
However, a major setback is usually encountered during biofuels production which is the conversion ratio of the polymeric substances into fermentable sugars like hexoses and pentoses due to production of inhibitors along with the desired products.
To minimize such inhibitors and maximize hexoses and pentoses production, microbial metabolism in the degradation and saccharification of the biomass cell wall were considered [ 48 , 49 ]. Currently, the use of lignocellulosic biomass as raw material for the generation of bioenergy has received a considerable attention for the development of sustainable ways for production of energy.
Most of the researches conducted for biomass conversion technologies heads towards discovery of advanced ways to produce energy fuels so as to tackle its shortage that the world is facing. Also, the studies are aimed towards reduction of greenhouse gases and other harmful effects posed by fossil fuels to the environment.
From above, it can be concluded that biomass is a green source of energy in recent times. The study also indicated that thermochemical and biochemical technologies for the conversion of biomass into different energy products was started several decades ago, but it slowed down due to the discovery of fossil fuels.
The biomass conversion technologies gained momentum recently due the fact that it is clean, sustainable and renewable source of energy. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Edited by Thalita Peixoto Basso.
Open access peer-reviewed chapter Biomass Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Generation: An Introduction Written By Abdurrahman Garba.
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IntechOpen Biotechnological Applications of Biomass Edited by Thalita Peixoto Basso. From the Edited Volume Biotechnological Applications of Biomass Edited by Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso Book Details Order Print. Chapter metrics overview 2, Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics.
Impact of this chapter. Abstract Over the last century, there has been increasing debate concerning the use of biomass for different purposes such as foods, feeds, energy fuels, heating, cooling and most importantly biorefinery feedstock.
Keywords biomass bioenergy biochemicals conversion routes green chemistry. Introduction Biomass can be regarded as any organic material that originated from plants or animals. Table 1. Process Substrate Pre-treatment Ethanol Conc. Table 2. References 1. Clarifications of definitions of biomass and consideration of changes in carbon pools due to a CDM project activity.
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