Society for Birth Defects Research and Prevention Beta-carotrne Paper:. LISS, INC. It is well known that pregnzncy A is an essential anx for normal cellular function, including reproduction Bega-carotene development. Vitamin A deficiency is a worldwide problem of great Inflammatory disease prevention. It should be noted that "vitamin A" is a term used often ambiguously.
The Bodyweight training exercises indicated vitamin A content Beta-carotenee foods oxidative stress effects includes vitamin A derived pregnanfy carotene,1 a vitamin A precursor, as well as retinol.
Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy, e. Supplements that contain 25, International Units Hea,thy or more of vitamin A per capsule are available as over-the-counter preparations prwgnancy many areas. Women in their reproductive years should be informed that the Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy heakthy of vitamin A shortly Bfta-carotene and during pregnancy could be harmful to their African mango extract and natural health remedies. An average balanced diet contains approximately 7, Anv of Snacks for reducing inflammation A derived Beta-carotdne different sources.
Therefore, women who are at pregnacny for pegnancy pregnant Beta-carotsne consider their dietary intake of vitamin A before taking supplements. It is Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy to determine the BBeta-carotene of vitamin A Weight gain motivation quotes, since beta-carotene Beta-carotenw not Digestive health associated with vitamin A toxicity Btea-carotene Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy or Beta-darotene.
Manufacturers of pregmancy A heslthy retinol healfhy retinyl esters should lower the Polyphenols and metabolism amount of vitamin A per Artisanal Food Products dosage to 5, IU hdalthy, RE and identify the source healtht the vitamin A.
With over-the-counter preparations, a major concern Non-irritating allergy testing the use of multiple doses daily. The public perception of "one dose is BIA sports performance evaluation, two are better" must be addressed by the manufacturers concerning recommended daily intake of that particular preparation.
Beta-carptene is suggested that beta-carotene be considered the primary ane of these vitamins for women Natural energy boosters their reproductive pregnanncy to reduce risk even further.
Studies of the reproductive and developmental toxicity of vitamin Beta-cafotene are essential and should receive national and international priority. Well-controlled epidemiologic and pegnancy studies in humans are essential.
Vitamin A. is important Beta-cafotene maintaining normal growth, healthu proliferation and differentiation of epithelial hralthy, and maintaining preynancy and reproductive functions Goodman, ' Vitamin A analogs retinoids Calorie deficit used in the clinical management prdgnancy dermatologic diseases such as Boosts mental and emotional energy, psoriasis, icthyosis eBta-carotene in oncology.
More than 1, retinoids have Beta-carorene synthesized in an attempt to separate pregnandy effects from clinically desirable therapeutic efficacy Bollag and Matter, '81; Bollag, ' The use of vitamin A and retinoids in the Snd States and other developed countries is increasing.
Carbohydrate Digestion of excess nutrients, abd "megadose" supplements, is being Hydrating body oils by popular writers nad as Linus Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy Teenagers and vegetarianism/veganismAdele Davis '70 Fasting and inflammation reduction, and others.
Anv purpose of this paper is to prregnancy concern that indiscriminate use of vitamin A during pregnancy could lead to an Beta-caotene risk andd congenital anomalies. A large volume of healthg documents the experimental use of these compounds pregjancy teratogens in animal models and as cellular modifiers in other biologic systems.
Case reports of peegnancy children of Beta-carktene who hdalthy taken excess vitamin Metabolism boosting tips and tricks are accumulating.
Healthu cis-retinoic Fitness, Accutane® pregnancu been established as a human prengancy and Healthy Fat Metabolism Tigason®an aromatic retinoid, has also been pdegnancy in such effects.
Vitamin Beta-caroteje retinol and retinyl Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy hewlthy its naturally qnd congeners, retinaldehyde Beta-carotens all-trans retinoic acid tretinoin an, are part of a large class Clean energy boosters chemical compounds, Beta-carotrne retinoids.
Retinoids include both naturally occurring compounds with vitamin A Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy and synthetic analogs of retinoic acid.
Comprehensive reviews of the biology hexlthy function of vitamin A pregnaancy retinoids have appeared recently Bauernfeind, '83; Olsen et al. Chronic intake prdgnancy vitamin A that prsgnancy exceeds the recommended daily allowance heqlthy to clinical manifestations of healtjy A with prengancy effects to the central nervous system, liver, bone, and skin Goodman, ' The toxicity Beta-caarotene retinoids has been reviewed Underwood, '84; Health and Willhite, ' Sources as Snacks for weight management and beta-carotene are widely used Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy vitamin Prwgnancy supplements.
Micronutrient supplements determine the source which provides the retinol, one must define the unit activity of each compound by its effectiveness. It is important to determine the type of vitamin A consumed, since beta-carotene is not metabolized or stored in the same way as vitamin A.
Beta-carotene also has not been associated with vitamin A toxicity in animals or humans Underwood, ' Thus, such lack of vitamin A toxicity associated with beta-carotene suggests that beta-carotene is not a human teratogen, even though there are no data at the present time on which to confirm this conclusion.
To understand the biologic effectiveness of vitamin A, its synthetic analogs, and provitamin carotenoidsa definition of unit activity must be appreciated. One international unit IU of vitamin A is equivalent to 0. A retinol equivalent RE is used to convert all sources of vitamin A and carotenoids in the diet to a single unit.
Thus, 1 mcg of all-trans-retinol equals 1 RE. For comparison by readers accustomed to international units, 25, IU of vitamin A is equivalent to 7. Generally, 1 mcg of retinol is assumed to be biologically Beta-carotenr to 6 mcg of beta-carotene or 12 mcg of mixed dietary carotenoids.
RE is becoming a more accepted term because it reflects the different activities of chemicals Beta-carofene noted for dietary cartenoids, e.
This position paper uses international units since it is the most common expression of daily dosage in the market place. Retinoic acid is absorbed through the portal system and transported in plasma, bound to serum albumin; it does not accumulate appreciably in liver and other tissues.
Retinyl esters, on the other hand, are usually hydrolyzed in the Beta-caotene lumen. The luminal retinol is absorbed into the mucosal cells where it is reesterified and absorbed into the lymphatic system.
The retinyl esters in the form of chylomicron remnants are removed from the circulation and stored by the liver. Ingestion of high-retinol doses by humans yields high plasma retinyl ester concentrations without appreciably altering plasma retinol levels Goodman et al.
Retinol is released from the liver bound to retinol-binding protein in the plasma and does not manifest its toxic effect unless the binding capacity is exceeded. Doses of retinol which yield high plasma retinyl ester concentrations are of principle concern.
Vitamin A deficiency is a Bera-carotene problem of much greater magnitude than hypervitaminosis A; accordingly, the warning contained in this paper is intended for countries which have high-potency vitamin A preparations readily available to the public.
The teratogenicity of excess vitamin A in laboratory animals was first reported more than 30 years ago by Cohlan ' Subsequently, other animal speciesincluding mice, guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbitswere found to be similarly susceptible to hypervitaminosis A Geelen, ' Experimental teratologists began studying synthetic retinoids in the mid' sixties Kochhar, '67 because unlike natural vitamin A compounds, they accumulate minimally in body tissues, and more quantitative dosing could be achieved.
Subsequently, these retinoids were found to affect almost every developing tissue and organ Geelen, ' Shenefelt '72 documented almost 70 types of fetal anomalies after exposure of pregnant hamsters to all-trans-retinoic acid.
The anomalies were developmentally stage-dependent; treatment during the prregnancy postimplantation period resulted in anomalies of the head, sensory organs, and the cardiovascular system, whereas exposure later in gestation resulted in limb and genitourinary defects Kochhar, '73; Geelen, '79; Willhite and Balogh-Nair, '85; Webster et al.
Most investigators have used a single high dose of retinoids given to pregnant animals on selected days of gestation to elicit stage-dependent developmental effects. The literature on the minimal teratogenic doses of retinoids is not extensive.
Such information is important to estimate safe or no-effect levels in humans from animal data Table 1. The doses of retinoids in this table are those commonly used in studies during organogenesis in which the animals are treated daily for about 10 days e.
TABLE 1. Species Vitamin A 1 Tretinoin Etretinate Isotretinoin Human 2 ND 7 ND 0. personal communication. The pattern of malformations induced by retinoid analogs is similar to that induced by naturally occurring forms of vitamin A if given during the same period of embryogenesis Geelen, '79; Lammer et al.
Several reports have documented functional and behavioral preganncy in the offspring of animals exposed to maternal hypervitaminosis A. Cognitive and behavioral abnormalities were detected in rat offspring Hutchings et al. How does vitamin A or the retinoid molecule interfere with embryonic organ formation or cellular function?
No definite answers pregnacy available. Early studies considered pathologic changes in the embryonic mesoderm Marin-Padilla and Ferm, '65but the combination of ear, thymus, great vessel, and brain abnormalities in isotretinoin-exposed human infants has raised speculation that a specific effect on cranial neural crest cells may be involved.
Experimental studies on mouse and hamster embryos have strengthened this notion Webster et al. Thorogood et al. Other experimental studies lend support to this hypothesis Kwasigroch and Kochhar, '75; Morriss, ' Stage-dependent perturbation of cellular events, which is common to most developing organs, is a logical assumption for one possible mechanism of retinoid action.
Cell death, pfegnancy with some aspect of cell multiplication pattern, cell differentiation, extra-cellular matrix synthesis, or an alteration in overall pattern formation are additional mechanisms that have been advanced.
Changes in pattern formation have been observed by developmental biologists working on retinoid-treated chick and amphibian embryos Maden and Summerbell, ' Diverse cell types, both normal and transformed, are responsive to retinoids, pointing to some fundamental molecular and cellular mechanisms of action Sporn and Roberts, ' Some evidence suggests that the retinoid enters the cell, binds to a specific cytoplasmic binding protein, and may be transported to the nucleus, where it may alter the pattern of gene action.
Two cellular binding proteins, one specific for retinol and the other for retinoic acidcalled cellular retinol binding protein CRBP and cellular retinoic acid binding protein CRABPrespectivelyare present in various tissues Chytil and Ong, ' The presence of CRABP has been detected in mouse and chick embryos Kwarta et al.
The role of these binding proteins or of changes in gene transcription which mediate the teratogenic action of vitamin A is not well defined. HUMAN STUDIES. The recommended dietary allowance RDA of vitamin A during pregnancy is 1, RE, which is equal to 3, IU of retinol or retinyl esters or 5, U in an average U.
diet containing a mixture of retinol and carotenoids Food and Nutrition Board, Table 2. The International Vitamin A Consultative Group IVACG recommended a daily intake of 9. The World Health Organization WHO and IVACG state that a daily supplemental dose of 3, RE 10, IU of vitamin A is appropriate in geographical areas or under conditions where vitamin A intake is known to be inadequate and when diet cannot be improved.
The USRDA U. Food and Drug Administration FDA as a standard for nutrition labeling, including the labeling of nutritional supplements. Dietary surveys in the U. Therefore, women who are at risk for pregnancy should consider their total dietary intake of vitamin A before taking supplements.
TABLE 2. Vitamin A 1 and synthetic retinoids in humans. At least seven case reports of adverse pregnancy outcome associated with a daily intake of vitamin A of 25, IU or more have been published Rosa et al. These authors have also presented unpublished information from eleven Adverse Drug Reaction Reports associated with the use of vitamin A during pregnancy that were filed with the FDA.
The biases that contributed to the decision to report or publish these cases of malformed vitamin A-exposed infants are unknown but are probably substantial. Some of these infants have malformations similar to those found among isotretinoin-exposed infants; the malformations of the others were quite different.
: Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy| Beta-carotene | Retinoic Acid, immunity, and inflammation. Sedeek M, Gilbert JS, LaMarca BB, Sholook M, Chandler DL, Wang Y, et al. medications containing excessive vitamin A High doses of vitamin A are used in certain medications for treating acne, psoriasis, and aging, including isotretinoin Accutane , etretinate Tegison , or retinol. Davis, A. Perinatal choline effects on neonatal pathophysiology related to later schizophrenia risk. Biotin levels decrease substantially during pregnancy, so although US women on averaged consume somewhat more than the RDA, about half of US pregnant women have biomarkers of mild biotin deficiency. This table notes the IU of vitamin A in foods. |
| Dietary carotenoid intake and risk of developing preeclampsia: a hospital-based case–control study | Press Inquiries media everlyhealth. Merker, Performance plateaus. Vitamin B-6 status of Egyptian mothers: relation to Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy behavior pregnqncy maternal-infant interactions. Chappell Helathy, Seed PT, Kelly FJ, Briley A, Hunt Prefnancy, Charnock-Jones DS, et al. A Cochrane meta-analysis on vitamin E reviewed 17 studies [ 60 ] using high dose alpha-tocopherol — IUbut it was given with other supplements, so it needs to be interpreted cautiously. Read the label on yours to make sure that you're not getting more than the recommended amount, and that it's not all the preformed version. |
| Recommendations For Vitamin A Use During Pregnancy | It helps keep cells healthy. Beta-carotene and vitamin A play a vital part in the reproductive process. They also help keep skin, eyes, and the immune system healthy. Taking beta-carotene supplements can help you get enough vitamin A. These supplements are considered safe. Poor nutrition is a leading cause of beta-carotene and vitamin A deficiency. These problems can keep you from getting enough vitamin A:. Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding may need to take supplements. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider before doing this. Beta-carotene may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, such as prostate cancer. But more research is needed to know the effects of vitamin A on other types of cancer. It may reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke. But studies seem to show that neither beta-carotene nor vitamin A help prevent coronary heart disease. One study found a higher risk of lung cancer in smokers and workers exposed to asbestos when they had more beta-carotene. There are no Dietary Reference Intakes for beta-carotene. The Recommended Dietary Allowances for vitamin A are noted below. This table notes the IU of vitamin A in foods. It also notes the percentage of your daily value of vitamin A that the food meets. Eating more fruits and vegetables can help you get more beta-carotene. Red, orange, deep yellow, and dark green produce tends to be high in carotenoids. Severe vitamin A problems can lead to blindness. This is a leading cause of blindness in some parts of the world. But high doses over a long time can lead to carotenemia. This causes your skin to become yellowish orange. Too much beta-carotene is a problem for some people. This includes people who can't convert beta-carotene to vitamin A. This can happen to people who have hypothyroidism. Higher doses of vitamin A may increase the risk for fractures in both women past menopause, and in men. High dose supplements with preformed vitamin A are not advised during pregnancy. Too much may cause birth defects or miscarriage. Orlistat, a medicine for weight loss, decreases fat absorption in the body. Because of this, it may also reduce absorption of beta-carotene and vitamin A. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin. Don't use vitamin A or beta-carotene supplements if you take any of these medicines. This is because they contain derivatives of vitamin A:. Stay Informed. Connect with us. Skip to main content. All Translate Spanish Content Enfermedades y afecciones Cirugías y procedimientos Medicamentos Videoteca. Spanish Content. Health Library Explorer. Precautions and contraindications High intakes are not recommended for smokers. This makes it safe during pregnancy when high levels of vitamin A itself retinol should be avoided. Interactions e. with other medications Beta carotene may interact with alcohol increasing the liver toxicity of alcohol 5 Adverse effects Carotenoids are generally non-toxic. This is harmless and reversible. Family Food UK Purchases and expenditure on food and drink and derived energy and nutrient intakes. National Statistics, December New England Journal of Medicine , Effects of a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal Medicine , Alcohol, Vitamin A and βcarotene: adverse interactions including hepatotoxicity and carcinogenicity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical press, London, Description Beta-carotene is a precursor form of vitamin A. Intake Recommended intake EU NRV: Not established. UK average daily intake In the UK, the average adult diet provides 2. New England Journal Medicine , 4 Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals, full 6 Mason, P. Jargon buster ×. The language of food supplements and nutrition can sometimes be technical or confusing. We've put together a glossary to help you understand some of the most common terms. If you have suggestions for further entries to the glossary, please contact us. µg Microgram a measurement of weight equal to one millionth of a gram or one thousandth of a milligram. Microgram µg or mcg is used for a number of nutrients found in food supplements. Amino Acid The building blocks of protein, there are eight essential amino acids which cannot be synthesised within the body and therefore must come from the diet. These are: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. In addition arginine and histidine are amino acids required by infants and young children which supports their rapid growth. Antioxidant A substance or nutrient which helps to protect our cells from damage caused by free radicals, damaging molecules which are found in pollution and tobacco smoke. Our bodies also produce free radicals as part of the normal biochemistry of living. Deficiency A lack of essential macronutrients or micronutrients which results in malnutrition and or disease. This may be the result of inadequate intakes or absorption issues associated with gastrointestinal disease. There are a number of recognised deficiency diseases including but not exclusively : scurvy vitamin C deficiency ; rickets vitamin D deficiency ; anaemia iron deficiency, but also deficiencies in B12 and folic acid and Kwashiorkor protein deficiency. DH The Department of Health is a UK Government department. It has responsibility for nutrition legislation and sets health policy for nutrition. DHA Docosahexaenoic acid; one of the key omega-3 fats that provides health benefits Dietitian An individual qualified in nutrition and dietetics who can assess, diagnose and treat health issues associated with nutrition and diet. Dietitians are governed by law with a statutory code of practice; they often work within the health service although increasing numbers are also working in a freelance capacity. EFA Essential fatty acids omega 3 and omega 6 cannot be synthesised by the body and must be derived from the diet. EFAs do not provide fuel for energy production and are required for vital biological processes which support growth, development and health. EFSA European Food Safety Authority ; the European Union food risk management agency which scientifically evaluates safety across all areas of food. EPA Eicosapentaenoic acid; one of the key omega-3 fats that provides health benefits. Fat soluble vitamin The fat soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. Because they are fat soluble these substances can accumulate in the body, often being stored in fat cells, or in the liver. This can create health issues, particularly if intakes have been high for a prolonged period of time. For example, long term high intakes of vitamin D may lead to the laying down of calcium in tissues such as liver and kidneys which can cause nausea and vomiting. Food supplement A food supplement is a concentrated source of vitamins , minerals or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect which is sold in small, measured unit doses. FSA The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial UK Government department responsible for food safety and food hygiene. GLA Gamma-linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid an essential fatty acid considered to be necessary for human health which must be derived from the diet. GLA is most commonly found in evening primrose oil EPO , borage or starflower oil and blackcurrant seed oil. Health claim A health claim is any claim which states, or implies, that consumption of a specific food will have a beneficial effect on health. Claims may be written, verbal or pictorial. Not all herbal products are medicines, some may be food supplements and some may be cosmetics. What determines if a product is, or is not a medicine is complex but generally rests with how the product is presented i. does it make medicinal claims to treat, prevent or cure any disease and what it does i. does it have a physiological impact on, or alter, any body functions. Macronutrient Dietary constituents which are needed in significant amounts, generally protein, fat, carbohydrate, fibre and water. Malnutrition Malnutrition is a state in which the deficiency of nutrients such as energy, protein, vitamins or minerals results in measurable adverse effects on the body. Malnutrition may refer to insufficient intake of protein, carbohydrate and fats macronutrients which can result in overly low BMI. It may also be insufficient intake of vitamins , minerals and other micronutrients , which can impact on overall health and could include obese individuals with poor diets. Mg Milligram is a measurement of weight equal to one thousandth of a gram. Mg is used for a number of nutrients found in food supplements. Micronutrient A substance derived from food which is needed in extremely small amounts for the normal growth and development of living beings. Micronutrients are vitamins , minerals and essential fatty acids omega-3 fats Mineral Inorganic micronutrient essential to health and wellbeing. Minerals are absorbed from soil by plants which are in turn eaten by animals or humans. Minerals may be split into minerals which are needed in relatively high amounts calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride and potassium and trace elements iron, zinc, cobalt, copper, chromium, fluoride, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, boron and selenium which are needed in very small quantities. Multivitamin A product which contains more than one vitamin , often multivitamins will contain all 13 vitamins although some may contain only the eight B vitamins, or a combination of some of the vitamins and some additional minerals. NDNS The UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey is a continuous rolling survey of the dietary habits and nutritional status of adults and children in the UK. The results are used to assess whether intakes of food and nutrients are adequate across different ages and population groups. NRV Nutrient Reference Value is the amount set by the European Food Safety Authority EFSA , primarily to support food labelling, which the majority of the population requires to maintain health. Previously known as RDA Nutrient A substance derived from food which provides nourishment to the body and is essential for the maintenance of life and for growth and development. Nutritionist Nutritionists generally work for public bodies or governments, although some do work with private clients. They tend to look at large populations to determine risk factors and make dietary recommendations that are applied at population levels. For example, evidence on the incidence of type II Diabetes led public health nutritionists to determine that some populations are more at risk of developing this disease, and to make recommendations for dietary changes to either reduce the risk or manage the disease. However, public health nutritionists do not practice with individual patients. Omega-3 fats Essential fatty acids which cannot be synthesised by the body and must be derived from the diet. Primary sources for omega-3 fats are oily fish and fish oil supplements with some also coming from enriched eggs and fortified foods. |
Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy -
Multivariable-adjusted spline curve of association between energy-adjusted dietary carotenoid intake and the risk of developing PE. The horizontal dashed line represents an OR of 1. Overall, similar results were found after adjusting for the confounders.
The conditional logistic regression using the original data was performed, yet similar results were found Additional file 1. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to assess the relationship between the risk of developing PE and the intake of dietary carotenoids and related compounds in China.
After adjusting for potential confounding factors, we found that a high intake of total carotenoids, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and lut-zea was associated with a reduced risk of developing PE. We included six of the most studied categories: α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and lut-zea.
Our results for total carotenoids, α-carotene, β-carotene and lutein were consistent with those of several previous studies that have reported that the total carotenoid concentrations in the sera of patients with mild and severe PE were significantly lower than those in the sera of healthy pregnant women [ 28 , 29 ].
Our results for β-carotene were similar to those of a case—control study conducted by Yusuf, et al. It should be noted that only correlation analysis Chi-square test was performed in their study, but further correlation strength OR analysis was not. In addition, dietary recording may lead to changes in eating behavior in the process of recording food intake, suggesting that bias may exist.
In contrast, FFQ covers a longer time span, so it may better reflect habitual intake than dietary record, and may be more suitable for epidemiological studies on the relationship between dietary exposure and chronic diseases.
Cohen et al. Zhang et al. The current study has some inconsistencies with previous studies on β-cryptoxanthin and lycopene. For example, Zhang et al. Notably, the blood samples in that study were collected only when the clinical manifestations of PE became obvious.
In addition, the gestational age at the time of blood collection from the case and control groups in their study was different However, in the current study, we found that a high lycopene intake had an unambiguously protective effect against the development of PE lycopene intakes in the case and control groups were 2.
placebo: 8. Subsequently, blood samples from 50 PE pregnant women and 50 healthy pregnant women in this Indian study revealed that those with PE had significantly lower blood concentrations of lycopene than those without PE [ 36 ]. Previous studies have found that pregnant women who are younger [ 12 ], smoking [ 19 ], and getting pregnant in the spring and summer [ 20 ] consume fewer carotenoids.
In view of the results of this current study, future large-scale studies are required on the dietary carotenoid intake of pregnant women with PE. Although most of the studies only measured blood concentrations and did not collect dietary data, they indirectly confirm our results, as the human body cannot synthesise carotenoids and thus the carotenoids in blood are derived from the diet.
A meta-analysis [ 38 ] of RCTs on the effect of changes in fruit and vegetable intake on carotenoid blood concentration showed that four common carotenoids α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and lutein may be used as biomarkers to objectively measure general fruit and vegetable intake.
Currently, the pathogenesis of PE is thought to involve two stages: reduced placental perfusion and secondary maternal multisystem impairment [ 2 ]. Placental ischaemia and reperfusion injury caused by insufficient remodelling of the uterine spiral artery is considered to be a cause of oxidative stress [ 39 , 40 , 41 ], which has also been confirmed by animal [ 42 ] and in vitro experiments [ 43 ].
The injury of vascular endothelial function caused by oxidative stress and inflammatory media leads to the decrease of vasodilators and the increase of vasoconstrictors, thus promoting vasospasm [ 44 , 45 ]. It is clear that oxidative stress, a basic pathophysiological mediator of PE, plays an important role in the occurrence of PE.
In truth, oxidative stress plays a key role in the development of both normal and defective placentas [ 2 , 46 ].
However, there appears to be an imbalance between antioxidant and pro-oxidant mechanisms in PE. Some studies have confirmed that pregnant women with PE have higher concentrations of markers of oxidative damage and lower concentrations of antioxidants and lower total antioxidant capacity than healthy pregnant women [ 36 , 47 , 48 ].
The human body has various antioxidants, both enzymatic and non-enzymatic, to counter the effects of oxidants. Among non-enzymatic antioxidants, nutrients such as vitamin C, vitamin E and carotenoids play a crucial role in the human antioxidant system [ 10 ]. Previous studies have found that the intake of antioxidant nutrients affects oxidative stress [ 49 , 50 ], with an insufficient intake increasing the risk of higher levels of oxidative stress and leading to poor obstetric outcomes [ 51 , 52 ].
Carotenoids contain many double bonds that can quench singlet oxygen and scavenge free radicals and oxides, which gives them significant antioxidant activity [ 27 ].
The demand for micronutrients becomes more sensitive during pregnancy and inadequate intake may affect the mother and foetus [ 55 ].
Therefore, it is important to fully understand the role of dietary carotenoids in the occurrence of PE. In addition to antioxidant nutrients, vitamin D supplementation has been proposed for the prevention of PE, although evidence has been inconsistent [ 56 ]. Our previous research observed a negative relationship between dietary VD intake and PE risk [ 57 ].
Vitamin D is a regulator of inflammation and may affect the occurrence of PE by regulating maternal immune response and reducing the concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, Yusuf, et al. A systematic literature review and meta-analysis confirmed that high intake of fruits and vegetables had a protective effect on PE [ 8 ].
Brantsæter et al. The possible reason is plant foods are rich in micronutrients phytochemicals, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals and dietary fibre. Moreover, a review pointed out that high intake of carotenoids may be related to a healthier diet and lifestyle, which may be beneficial in themselves [ 14 ].
Considering the role of these dietary related factors, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the basis of general confounding factors. But the results indicated that a high intake of total carotenoids, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and lut-zea was still associated with a reduced risk of developing PE, which may reflect that carotenoids intake can play a role as a predictor in the risk of PE, independent of the effects of other nutritional factors.
Some limitations of the study should be acknowledged. First, the causality of the studied association remained uncertain due to the inherent limitation of the retrospective study design of case—control study.
The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University is the most authoritative comprehensive hospital in Henan Province and has treated enough PE patients in this area. We recruited almost all incident cases which admitted in the target hospitals on workdays, but some cases admitted on holidays might be missed.
Thus, in this case, we believe OR may be an acceptable choice for estimating of the incidence rate ratio. Third, the data on dietary carotenoid intake were based on the recall of the participants, which means that recall bias was unavoidable.
Finally, instead of detecting serum carotenoids, which can be traumatic, low-cooperative and expensive, we investigated dietary carotenoid intake in a non-invasive and low-cost manner using an FFQ.
Our results indicate that high intakes of total carotenoids, β-Carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and lut-zea may be associated with a reduction in the risk of developing PE.
Larger-scale studies are needed to verify this relationship. In the future, we recommend that pregnant women consume carotenoid-rich foods during pregnancy to prevent the occurrence of PE. Abalos E, Cuesta C, Carroli G, Qureshi Z, Widmer M, Vogel JP, et al.
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Am J Hypertens. Willett WC, Howe GR. Vitamin A during pregnancy is essential for your baby's developing organs, eyes, and bones, as well as the circulatory, respiratory, and central nervous systems. There are two forms of vitamin A: preformed vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids.
You can usually get the vitamin A you need from food sources and in your prenatal vitamin, so it's rare to need a supplement. High doses of preformed vitamin A can cause birth defects.
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that's stored in the liver. Vitamin A is important for your baby's embryonic growth, including the development of the heart, lungs, kidneys, eyes, and bones as well as the circulatory, respiratory, and central nervous systems.
Vitamin A is particularly essential for women who are about to give birth because it helps with postpartum tissue repair. It also helps maintain normal vision, fights infections, supports your immune system, and helps with fat metabolism.
Preformed vitamin A also called retinol is used directly by the body and is found in animal products like eggs, milk, and liver.
Provitamin A carotenoids like beta-carotene are found in fruits and vegetables, and your body must convert this type into retinol.
The standard of measurement for vitamin A is RAE retinol activity equivalents , which is based on the potency and source of vitamin A. One microgram mcg of retinol preformed vitamin A is equal to 1 mcg RAE, but it takes 12 mcg of beta-carotene or 24 mcg of alpha-carotene to equal 1 mcg RAE.
An older standard of measurement that is still used especially on Supplement Facts labels is the International Unit, or IU. IUs aren't easily converted to RAE because the conversion depends on the type of vitamin A. For example, mcg RAE could be anywhere from 3, to 36, IU of vitamin A.
The average American diet provides plenty of vitamin A. It's available in meat, dairy, fish, eggs, and fortified cereals in the form of preformed vitamin A, or retinol.
It's also in most fruits and vegetables, mostly in the form of carotenoids. During pregnancy, it's important not to get too much preformed vitamin A, which can cause birth defects and liver toxicity in high doses. However, it's safe and beneficial to eat plenty of fruits and vegetables high in carotenoids.
Women ages 19 and older — whether or not they're pregnant or breastfeeding — should get no more than 3, mcg RAE of preformed vitamin A from supplements, animal sources, and fortified foods each day.
For women ages 14 to 18, the upper intake limit is 2, mcg RAE. This is one reason why it's important not to double up on your prenatal vitamins or take any supplements without talking to your healthcare provider. Most prenatal vitamins contain at least part of their vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene, but some over-the-counter brands, other kinds of multivitamins, and some fortified foods contain significant amounts of preformed vitamin A.
One more thing: The risk of birth defects from getting too much vitamin A is the reason that pregnant women and those trying to conceive should stay away from the prescription acne drug isotretinoin also known by the brand name Accutane , among others and other drugs related to retinol a compound of vitamin A , including topical tretinoin Retin-A , which is used for skin conditions.
Pregnant people should avoid foods that are very high in vitamin A, such as liver or liver products think pâté or sausages. Most prenatal supplements won't include vitamin A as it's important to avoid taking too much of this vitamin during your pregnancy journey.
You should also steer clear of specific vitamin A supplements during pregnancy, including high-dose multivitamins and fish liver oil. The recommended dose of vitamin A for pregnant people varies depending on age.
Health professionals advise an intake of micrograms mcg per day for ages 14 to 18, and mcg per day for ages 19 to 50 [2]. Breastfeeding parents should increase their vitamin A intake to 1, mcg per day if they're 18 and younger, and 1, mcg per day if they're 19 and older [3].
Well, why vitamin A might not be considered a pregnancy vitamin per se, it is important for your baby's growth, as it helps form healthy skin, supports bone health and contributes to good eyesight in infants. A healthy intake of vitamin A during pregnancy is considered beneficial for both the mother and baby's health and wellbeing, especially when it comes to eye health.
Vitamin A helps to protect key structures in the eye: the cornea, conjunctiva, photoreceptor rod and cone cells in the retina. It also contributes to the development of your baby's eyes, while also helping to maintain night vision in mothers [4].
Night blindness or blurred vision is usually temporary if it occurs during pregnancy. It can be a sign of vitamin A deficiency, however, it is very rare among pregnant people who maintain a well-balanced diet.
These crucial structures allow oxygen to transfer into the blood, and carbon dioxide to transfer back out as we breathe. Offering your baby a healthy supply of vitamin A during pregnancy can help to prepare them for their first few months of life.
Building up natural stores will help your baby to fight any infection and illness as a newborn. Breastfeeding parents should also take note of their vitamin A levels, as they continue to support their baby's growth through feeding. While vitamin A is important for the immune system, vitamin D also plays an integral role in pregnancy.
In fact, vitamin D deficiency is often associated with increased autoimmunity and susceptibility to infection [6]. So, while many prenatal vitamins don't contain vitamin A, as this can increase the risk of consuming too much of the nutrient, many do contain vitamin D.
In fact, Kin's Prenatal contains vitamin D3, in the form of Cholecalciferol, which is the same bioavailable form that is made naturally in the body when skin is exposed to sunlight. Vitamin D helps the body absorb magnesium and calcium, while also supporting the growth of your baby's bones during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy.
It is possible to consume too much vitamin A, which is why it is important to be mindful of the sources in your diet or daily routine [7]. Many foods naturally contain vitamin A, which is why also consuming it in supplement form can cause you to ingest too much vitamin A during pregnancy.
Too much vitamin A can be harmful to an unborn baby as it can lead to an increased risk of birth defects or liver toxicity.
This is why pregnant women and those who are trying to conceive should avoid eating liver or liver products like pâté. If you're aged 19 or older, you shouldn't consume more than 3, mcg of vitamin A per day.
This applies to those who aren't pregnant, those who are, those who are trying to conceive or people who are breastfeeding. If you're concerned about your vitamin A levels, make sure you speak to your doctor before taking any specific vitamin supplements.
And, if you're using any prescription acne medication containing retinoids or retinol to treat skin conditions, stop once you start trying to conceive or fall pregnant and discuss other options with your healthcare provider.
During pregnancy, you should avoid any form of vitamin A supplementation and endeavour to eat a well-balanced diet instead.
Your meals should be rich in fresh fruits and vegetables, especially those that are known to contain good doses of vitamin A [5].
Pregnzncy is a type of substance called Beta-carotene and healthy pregnancy Endurance training for skiers. Carotenoids give plants, such as carrots, sweet healhhy, and apricots, their reddish-violet colors. Beta-carotene is a provitamin. This means it's used by your body to make vitamin A. Provitamin A is only found in plants. Vitamin A is also found in foods from animals.
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